Darwin and Modern Science

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DARWIN AND MODERN SCIENCE

ESSAYS IN COMMEMORATION OF THE CENTENARY OF THE BIRTH OF CHARLES DARWIN AND
OF THE FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE PUBLICATION OF "THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES"

BY

A.C. SEWARD

"My success as a man of science, whatever this may have amounted to, has
been determined, as far as I can judge, by complex and diversified mental
qualities and conditions. Of these, the most important have been--the love
of science--unbounded patience in long reflecting over any subject--
industry in observing and collecting facts--and a fair share of invention
as well as of common sense. With such moderate abilities as I possess, it
is truly surprising that I should have influenced to a considerable extent
the belief of scientific men on some important points."

Autobiography (1881); "The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin", Vol. 1.
page 107.

PREFACE

At the suggestion of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, the Syndics of
the University Press decided in March, 1908, to arrange for the publication
of a series of Essays in commemoration of the Centenary of the birth of
Charles Darwin and of the Fiftieth anniversary of the publication of "The
Origin of Species". The preliminary arrangements were made by a committee
consisting of the following representatives of the Council of the
Philosophical Society and of the Press Syndicate: Dr H.K. Anderson, Prof.
Bateson, Mr Francis Darwin, Dr Hobson, Dr Marr, Prof. Sedgwick, Mr David
Sharp, Mr Shipley, Prof. Sorley, Prof. Seward. In the course of the
preparation of the volume, the original scheme and list of authors have
been modified: a few of those invited to contribute essays were, for
various reasons, unable to do so, and some alterations have been made in
the titles of articles. For the selection of authors and for the choice of
subjects, the committee are mainly responsible, but for such share of the
work in the preparation of the volume as usually falls to the lot of an
editor I accept full responsibility.

Authors were asked to address themselves primarily to the educated layman
rather than to the expert. It was hoped that the publication of the essays
would serve the double purpose of illustrating the far-reaching influence
of Darwin's work on the progress of knowledge and the present attitude of
original investigators and thinkers towards the views embodied in Darwin's
works.

In regard to the interpretation of a passage in "The Origin of Species"
quoted by Hugo de Vries, it seemed advisable to add an editorial footnote;
but, with this exception, I have not felt it necessary to record any
opinion on views stated in the essays.

In reading the essays in proof I have availed myself freely of the willing
assistance of several Cambridge friends, among whom I wish more especially
to thank Mr Francis Darwin for the active interest he has taken in the
preparation of the volume. Mrs J.A. Thomson kindly undertook the
translation of the essays by Prof. Weismann and Prof. Schwalbe; Mrs James
Ward was good enough to assist me by translating Prof. Bougle's article on
Sociology, and to Mr McCabe I am indebted for the translation of the essay
by Prof. Haeckel. For the translation of the botanical articles by Prof.
Goebel, Prof. Klebs and Prof. Strasburger, I am responsible; in the
revision of the translation of Prof. Strasburger's essay Madame Errera of
Brussels rendered valuable help. Mr Wright, the Secretary of the Press
Syndicate, and Mr Waller, the Assistant Secretary, have cordially
cooperated with me in my editorial work; nor can I omit to thank the
readers of the University Press for keeping watchful eyes on my
shortcomings in the correction of proofs.

The two portraits of Darwin are reproduced by permission of Messrs Maull
and Fox and Messrs Elliott and Fry. The photogravure of the study at Down
is reproduced from an etching by Mr Axel Haig, lent by Mr Francis Darwin;
the coloured plate illustrating Prof. Weismann's essay was originally
published by him in his "Vortrage uber Descendenztheorie" which afterwards
appeared (1904) in English under the title "The Evolution Theory". Copies
of this plate were supplied by Messrs Fischer of Jena.

The Syndics of the University Press have agreed, in the event of this
volume being a financial success, to hand over the profits to a University
fund for the endowment of biological research.

It is clearly impossible to express adequately in a single volume of Essays
the influence of Darwin's contributions to knowledge on the subsequent
progress of scientific inquiry. As Huxley said in 1885: "Whatever be the
ultimate verdict of posterity upon this or that opinion which Mr Darwin has
propounded; whatever adumbrations or anticipations of his doctrines may be
found in the writings of his predecessors; the broad fact remains that,
since the publication and by reason of the publication of "The Origin of
Species" the fundamental conceptions and the aims of the students of living
Nature have been completely changed...But the impulse thus given to
scientific thought rapidly spread beyond the ordinarily recognised limits
of Biology. Psychology, Ethics, Cosmology were stirred to their
foundations, and 'The Origin of Species' proved itself to be the fixed
point which the general doctrine needed in order to move the world."

In the contributions to this Memorial Volume, some of the authors have more
especially concerned themselves with the results achieved by Darwin's own
work, while others pass in review the progress of research on lines which,
though unknown or but little followed in his day, are the direct outcome of
his work.

The divergence of views among biologists in regard to the origin of species
and as to the most promising directions in which to seek for truth is
illustrated by the different opinions of contributors. Whether Darwin's
views on the modus operandi of evolutionary forces receive further
confirmation in the future, or whether they are materially modified, in no
way affects the truth of the statement that, by employing his life "in
adding a little to Natural Science," he revolutionised the world of
thought. Darwin wrote in 1872 to Alfred Russel Wallace: "How grand is the
onward rush of science: it is enough to console us for the many errors
which we have committed, and for our efforts being overlaid and forgotten
in the mass of new facts and new views which are daily turning up." In the
onward rush, it is easy for students convinced of the correctness of their
own views and equally convinced of the falsity of those of their fellow-
workers to forget the lessons of Darwin's life. In his autobiographical
sketch, he tells us, "I have steadily endeavoured to keep my mind free so
as to give up any hypothesis, however much beloved...as soon as facts are
shown to be opposed to it." Writing to Mr J. Scott, he says, "It is a
golden rule, which I try to follow, to put every fact which is opposed to
one's preconceived opinion in the strongest light. Absolute accuracy is
the hardest merit to attain, and the highest merit. Any deviation is
ruin."

He acted strictly in accordance with his determination expressed in a
letter to Lyell in 1844, "I shall keep out of controversy, and just give my
own facts." As was said of another son of Cambridge, Sir George Stokes,
"He would no more have thought of disputing about priority, or the
authorship of an idea, than of writing a report for a company promoter."
Darwin's life affords a striking confirmation of the truth of Hazlitt's
aphorism, "Where the pursuit of truth has been the habitual study of any
man's life, the love of truth will be his ruling passion." Great as was
the intellect of Darwin, his character, as Huxley wrote, was even nobler
than his intellect.

A.C. SEWARD.

Botany School, Cambridge,
March 20, 1909.

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTORY LETTER TO THE EDITOR from SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, O.M.

II. DARWIN'S PREDECESSORS:
J. ARTHUR THOMSON, Professor of Natural History in the University of
Aberdeen.

III. THE SELECTION THEORY:
AUGUST WEISMANN, Professor of Zoology in the University of Freiburg
(Baden).

IV. VARIATION:
HUGO DE VRIES, Professor of Botany in the University of Amsterdam.

V. HEREDITY AND VARIATION IN MODERN LIGHTS:
W. BATESON, Professor of Biology in the University of Cambridge.

VI. THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF CELLS IN RELATION TO HEREDITY:
EDUARD STRASBURGER, Professor of Botany in the University of Bonn.

VII. "THE DESCENT OF MAN":
G. SCHWALBE, Professor of Anatomy in the University of Strassburg.

VIII. CHARLES DARWIN AS AN ANTHROPOLOGIST:
ERNST HAECKEL, Professor of Zoology in the University of Jena.

IX. SOME PRIMITIVE THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF MAN:
J.G. FRAZER, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

X. THE INFLUENCE OF DARWIN ON THE STUDY OF ANIMAL EMBRYOLOGY:
A. SEDGWICK, Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the
University of Cambridge.

XI. THE PALAEONTOLOGICAL RECORD. I. ANIMALS:
W.B. SCOTT, Professor of Geology in the University of Princeton.

XII. THE PALAEONTOLOGICAL RECORD. II. PLANTS:
D.H. SCOTT, President of the Linnean Society of London.

XIII. THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON THE FORMS OF PLANTS:
GEORG KLEBS, Professor of Botany in the University of Heidelberg.

XIV. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON ANIMALS:
JACQUES LOEB, Professor of Physiology in the University of California.

XV. THE VALUE OF COLOUR IN THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE:
E.B. POULTON, Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford.

XVI. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS:
SIR WILLIAM THISELTON-DYER.

XVII. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS:
HANS GADOW, Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University
of Cambridge.

XVIII. DARWIN AND GEOLOGY:
J.W. JUDD.

XIX. DARWIN'S WORK ON THE MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS:
FRANCIS DARWIN.

XX. THE BIOLOGY OF FLOWERS:
K. GOEBEL, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.

XXI. MENTAL FACTORS IN EVOLUTION:
C. LLOYD MORGAN, Professor of Psychology at University College, Bristol.

XXII. THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONCEPTION OF EVOLUTION ON MODERN PHILOSOPHY:
H. HOFFDING, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Copenhagen.

XXIII. DARWINISM AND SOCIOLOGY:
C. BOUGLE, Professor of Social Philosophy in the University of Toulouse,
and Deputy-Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris.

XXIV. THE INFLUENCE OF DARWIN UPON RELIGIOUS THOUGHT:
REV. P.N. WAGGETT.

XXV. THE INFLUENCE OF DARWINISM ON THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS:
JANE ELLEN HARRISON, Staff-Lecturer and sometime Fellow of Newnham
College, Cambridge.

XXVI. EVOLUTION AND THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE:
P. GILES, Reader in Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge.

XXVII. DARWINISM AND HISTORY:
J.B. BURY, Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of
Cambridge.

XXVIII. THE GENESIS OF DOUBLE STARS:
SIR GEORGE DARWIN, Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge.

XXIX. THE EVOLUTION OF MATTER:
W.C.D. WHETHAM, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

INDEX.

DATES OF THE PUBLICATION Of CHARLES DARWIN'S BOOKS AND OF THE PRINCIPAL
EVENTS IN HIS LIFE

1809:

Charles Darwin born at Shrewsbury, February 12.

1817:

"At 8 1/2 years old I went to Mr Case's school." (A day-school at
Shrewsbury kept by the Rev G. Case, Minister of the Unitarian Chapel.)

1818:

"I was at school at Shrewsbury under a great scholar, Dr Butler; I learnt
absolutely nothing, except by amusing myself by reading and experimenting
in Chemistry."

1825:

"As I was doing no good at school, my father wisely took me away at a
rather earlier age than usual, and sent me (Oct. 1825) to Edinburgh
University with my brother, where I stayed for two years."

1828:

Began residence at Christ's College, Cambridge.

"I went to Cambridge early in the year 1828, and soon became acquainted
with Professor Henslow...Nothing could be more simple, cordial and
unpretending than the encouragement which he afforded to all young
naturalists."

"During the three years which I spent at Cambridge my time was wasted, as
far as the academical studies were concerned, as completely as at Edinburgh
and at school."

"In order to pass the B.A. Examination, it was...necessary to get up
Paley's 'Evidences of Christianity,' and his 'Moral Philosophy'...The
careful study of these works, without attempting to learn any part by rote,
was the only part of the academical course which...was of the least use to
me in the education of my mind."

1831:

Passed the examination for the B.A. degree in January and kept the
following terms.

"I gained a good place among the oi polloi or crowd of men who do not go in
for honours."

"I am very busy,...and see a great deal of Henslow, whom I do not know
whether I love or respect most."

Dec. 27. "Sailed from England on our circumnavigation," in H.M.S.
"Beagle", a barque of 235 tons carrying 6 guns, under Capt. FitzRoy.

"There is indeed a tide in the affairs of men."

1836:

Oct. 4. "Reached Shrewsbury after absence of 5 years and 2 days."

"You cannot imagine how gloriously delightful my first visit was at home;
it was worth the banishment."

Dec. 13. Went to live at Cambridge (Fitzwilliam Street).

"The only evil I found in Cambridge was its being too pleasant."

1837:

"On my return home (in the 'Beagle') in the autumn of 1836 I immediately
began to prepare my journal for publication, and then saw how many facts
indicated the common descent of species...In July (1837) I opened my first
note-book for facts in relation to the Origin of Species, about which I had
long reflected, and never ceased working for the next twenty years...Had
been greatly struck from about the month of previous March on character of
South American fossils, and species on Galapagos Archipelago. These facts
(especially latter), origin of all my views."

"On March 7, 1837 I took lodgings in (36) Great Marlborough Street in
London, and remained there for nearly two years, until I was married."

1838:

"In October, that is fifteen months after I had begun my systematic
enquiry, I happened to read for amusement 'Malthus on Population,' and
being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which
everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals
and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable
variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be
destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here
then I had at last got a theory by which to work; but I was so anxious to
avoid prejudice, that I determined not for some time to write even the
briefest sketch of it."

1839:

Married at Maer (Staffordshire) to his first cousin Emma Wedgwood, daughter
of Josiah Wedgwood.

"I marvel at my good fortune that she, so infinitely my superior in every
single moral quality, consented to be my wife. She has been my wise
adviser and cheerful comforter throughout life, which without her would
have been during a very long period a miserable one from ill-health. She
has earned the love of every soul near her" (Autobiography).

Dec. 31. "Entered 12 Upper Gower street" (now 110 Gower street, London).
"There never was so good a house for me, and I devoutly trust you (his
future wife) will approve of it equally. The little garden is worth its
weight in gold."

Published "Journal and Researches", being Vol. III. of the "Narrative of
the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S. 'Adventure' and 'Beagle'"...

Publication of the "Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle'", Part II.,
"Mammalia", by G.R. Waterhouse, with a "Notice of their habits and ranges",
by Charles Darwin.

1840:

Contributed Geological Introduction to Part I. ("Fossil Mammalia") of the
"Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle'" by Richard Owen.

1842:

"In June 1842 I first allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very
brief abstract of my (species) theory in pencil in 35 pages; and this was
enlarged during the summer of 1844 into one of 230 pages, which I had
fairly copied out and still (1876) possess." (The first draft of "The
Origin of Species", edited by Mr Francis Darwin, will be published this
year (1909) by the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press.)

Sept. 14. Settled at the village of Down in Kent.

"I think I was never in a more perfectly quiet country."

Publication of "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs"; being Part
I. of the "Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle".

1844:

Publication of "Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited
during the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle'"; being Part II. of the "Geology of
the Voyage of the 'Beagle'".

"I think much more highly of my book on Volcanic Islands since Mr Judd, by
far the best judge on the subject in England, has, as I hear, learnt much
from it." (Autobiography, 1876.)

1845:

Publication of the "Journal of Researches" as a separate book.

1846:

Publication of "Geological Observations on South America"; being Part III.
of the "Geology of the Voyage of the 'Beagle'".

1851:

Publication of a "Monograph of the Fossil Lepadidae" and of a "Monograph of
the sub-class Cirripedia".

"I fear the study of the Cirripedia will ever remain 'wholly unapplied,'
and yet I feel that such study is better than castle-building."

1854:

Publication of Monographs of the Balanidae and Verrucidae.

"I worked steadily on this subject for...eight years, and ultimately
published two thick volumes, describing all the known living species, and
two thin quartos on the extinct species...My work was of considerable use
to me, when I had to discuss in the "Origin of Species" the principles of a
natural classification. Nevertheless, I doubt whether the work was worth
the consumption of so much time."

"From September 1854 I devoted my whole time to arranging my huge pile of
notes, to observing, and to experimenting in relation to the transmutation
of species."

1856:

"Early in 1856 Lyell advised me to write out my views pretty fully, and I
began at once to do so on a scale three or four times as extensive as that
which was afterwards followed in my 'Origin of Species'."

1858:

Joint paper by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace "On the Tendency of
Species to form Varieties; and on the perpetuation of Varieties and Species
by Natural Means of Selection," communicated to the Linnean Society by Sir
Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph Hooker.

"I was at first very unwilling to consent (to the communication of his MS.
to the Society) as I thought Mr Wallace might consider my doing so
unjustifiable, for I did not then know how generous and noble was his
disposition."

"July 20 to Aug. 12 at Sandown (Isle of Wight) began abstract of Species
book."

1859:

Nov. 24. Publication of "The Origin of Species" (1250 copies).

"Oh, good heavens, the relief to my head and body to banish the whole
subject from my mind!...But, alas, how frequent, how almost universal it is
in an author to persuade himself of the truth of his own dogmas. My only
hope is that I certainly see many difficulties of gigantic stature."

1860:

Publication of the second edition of the "Origin" (3000 copies).

Publication of a "Naturalist's Voyage".

1861:

Publication of the third edition of the "Origin" (2000 copies).

"I am going to write a little book...on Orchids, and to-day I hate them
worse than everything."

1862:

Publication of the book "On the various contrivances by which Orchids are
fertilised by Insects".

1865:

Read paper before the Linnean Society "On the Movements and Habits of
Climbing plants". (Published as a book in 1875.)

1866:

Publication of the fourth edition of the "Origin" (1250 copies).

1868:

"I have sent the MS. of my big book, and horridly, disgustingly big it will
be, to the printers."

Publication of the "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication".

"About my book, I will give you (Sir Joseph Hooker) a bit of advice. Skip
the whole of Vol. I, except the last chapter, (and that need only be
skimmed), and skip largely in the 2nd volume; and then you will say it is a
very good book."

"Towards the end of the work I give my well-abused hypothesis of
Pangenesis. An unverified hypothesis is of little or no value; but if
anyone should hereafter be led to make observations by which some such
hypothesis could be established, I shall have done good service, as an
astonishing number of isolated facts can be thus connected together and
rendered intelligible."

1869:

Publication of the fifth edition of the "Origin".

1871:

Publication of "The Descent of Man".

"Although in the 'Origin of Species' the derivation of any particular
species is never discussed, yet I thought it best, in order that no
honourable man should accuse me of concealing my views, to add that by the
work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history'."

1872:

Publication of the sixth edition of the "Origin".

Publication of "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals".

1874:

Publication of the second edition of "The Descent of Man".

"The new edition of the "Descent" has turned out an awful job. It took me
ten days merely to glance over letters and reviews with criticisms and new
facts. It is a devil of a job."

Publication of the second edition of "The Structure and Distribution of
Coral Reefs".

1875:

Publication of "Insectivorous Plants".

"I begin to think that every one who publishes a book is a fool."

Publication of the second edition of "Variation in Animals and Plants".

Publication of "The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants" as a separate
book.

1876:

Wrote Autobiographical Sketch ("Life and Letters", Vol. I., Chap II.).

Publication of "The Effects of Cross and Self fertilisation".

"I now (1881) believe, however,...that I ought to have insisted more
strongly than I did on the many adaptations for self-fertilisation."

Publication of the second edition of "Observations on Volcanic Islands".

1877:

Publication of "The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same
species".

"I do not suppose that I shall publish any more books...I cannot endure
being idle, but heaven knows whether I am capable of any more good work."

Publication of the second edition of the Orchid book.

1878:

Publication of the second edition of "The Effects of Cross and Self
fertilisation".

1879:

Publication of an English translation of Ernst Krause's "Erasmus Darwin",
with a notice by Charles Darwin. "I am EXTREMELY glad that you approve of
the little 'Life' of our Grandfather, for I have been repenting that I ever
undertook it, as the work was quite beyond my tether." (To Mr Francis
Galton, Nov. 14, 1879.)

1880:

Publication of "The Power of Movement in Plants".

"It has always pleased me to exalt plants in the scale of organised
beings."

Publication of the second edition of "The Different Forms of Flowers".

1881:

Wrote a continuation of the Autobiography.

Publication of "The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Action of
Worms".

"It is the completion of a short paper read before the Geological Society
more than forty years ago, and has revived old geological thoughts...As far
as I can judge it will be a curious little book."

1882:

Charles Darwin died at Down, April 19, and was buried in Westminster Abbey,
April 26, in the north aisle of the Nave a few feet from the grave of Sir
Isaac Newton.

"As for myself, I believe that I have acted rightly in steadily following
and devoting my life to Science. I feel no remorse from having committed
any great sin, but have often and often regretted that I have not done more
direct good to my fellow creatures."

The quotations in the above Epitome are taken from the Autobiography and
published Letters:--

"The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin", including an Autobiographical
Chapter. Edited by his son, Francis Darwin, 3 Vols., London, 1887.

"Charles Darwin": His life told in an Autobiographical Chapter, and in a
selected series of his published Letters. Edited by his son, Francis
Darwin, London, 1902.

"More Letters of Charles Darwin". A record of his work in a series of
hitherto unpublished Letters. Edited by Francis Darwin and A.C. Seward, 2
Vols., London, 1903.

I. INTRODUCTORY LETTER

FROM SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER,

O.M., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., ETC.

The Camp,

near Sunningdale,

January 15, 1909.

Dear Professor Seward,

The publication of a Series of Essays in Commemoration of the century of
the birth of Charles Darwin and of the fiftieth anniversary of the
publication of "The Origin of Species" is assuredly welcome and is a
subject of congratulation to all students of Science.

These Essays on the progress of Science and Philosophy as affected by
Darwin's labours have been written by men known for their ability to
discuss the problems which he so successfully worked to solve. They cannot
but prove to be of enduring value, whether for the information of the
general reader or as guides to investigators occupied with problems similar
to those which engaged the attention of Darwin.