On the Improvement of the Understanding
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Baruch Spinoza >> On the Improvement of the Understanding
On the Improvement of the Understanding
(Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect)
by Baruch Spinoza [Benedict de Spinoza]
Translated by R. H. M. Elwes
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1 On the Improvement of the Understanding
3 Of the ordinary objects of men's desires
12 Of the true and final good
17 Certain rules of life
19 Of the four modes of perception
25 Of the best mode of perception
33 Of the instruments of the intellect, or true ideas
43 Answers to objections
First part of method:
50 Distinction of true ideas from fictitious ideas
64 And from false ideas
77 Of doubt
81 Of memory and forgetfulness
86 Mental hindrances from words - and from the popular confusion
of ready imagination with distinct understanding.
Second part of method:
91 Its object, the acquisition of clear and distinct ideas
94 Its means, good definitions
Conditions of definition
107 How to define understanding
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[Notice to the Reader.]
(This notice to the reader was written by the editors of the
Opera Postuma in 1677. Taken from Curley, Note 3, at end)
*This Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect etc., which we
give you here, kind reader, in its unfinished [that is, defective]
state, was written by the author many years ago now. He always
intended to finish it. But hindered by other occupations, and
finally snatched away by death, he was unable to bring it to the
desired conclusion. But since it contains many excellent and useful
things, which - we have no doubt - will be of great benefit to
anyone sincerely seeking the truth, we did not wish to deprive you
of them. And so that you would be aware of, and find less difficult
to excuse, the many things that are still obscure, rough, and
unpolished, we wished to warn you of them. Farewell.*
[1] (1) After experience had taught me that all the usual
surroundings of social life are vain and futile; seeing that none
of the objects of my fears contained in themselves anything either
good or bad, except in so far as the mind is affected by them,
I finally resolved to inquire whether there might be some real
good having power to communicate itself, which would affect the
mind singly, to the exclusion of all else: whether, in fact, there
might be anything of which the discovery and attainment would
enable me to enjoy continuous, supreme, and unending happiness.
[2] (1) I say "I finally resolved," for at first sight it seemed
unwise willingly to lose hold on what was sure for the sake of
something then uncertain. (2) I could see the benefits which are
acquired through fame and riches, and that I should be obliged to
abandon the quest of such objects, if I seriously devoted myself
to the search for something different and new. (3) I perceived
that if true happiness chanced to be placed in the former I should
necessarily miss it; while if, on the other hand, it were not so
placed, and I gave them my whole attention, I should equally fail.
[3] (1) I therefore debated whether it would not be possible to
arrive at the new principle, or at any rate at a certainty
concerning its existence, without changing the conduct and usual
plan of my life; with this end in view I made many efforts,
in vain. (2) For the ordinary surroundings of life which are
esteemed by men (as their actions testify) to be the highest
good, may be classed under the three heads - Riches, Fame, and
the Pleasures of Sense: with these three the mind is so absorbed
that it has little power to reflect on any different good.
[4] (1) By sensual pleasure the mind is enthralled to the extent
of quiescence, as if the supreme good were actually attained, so
that it is quite incapable of thinking of any other object; when
such pleasure has been gratified it is followed by extreme
melancholy, whereby the mind, though not enthralled, is disturbed
and dulled. (2) The pursuit of honors and riches is likewise very
absorbing, especially if such objects be sought simply for their
own sake, [a] inasmuch as they are then supposed to constitute the
highest good.
[5] (1) In the case of fame the mind is still more absorbed, for fame
is conceived as always good for its own sake, and as the ultimate end
to which all actions are directed. (2) Further, the attainment of
riches and fame is not followed as in the case of sensual pleasures by
repentance, but, the more we acquire, the greater is our delight, and,
consequently, the more are we incited to increase both the one and the
other; on the other hand, if our hopes happen to be frustrated we are
plunged into the deepest sadness. (3) Fame has the further drawback
that it compels its votaries to order their lives according to the
opinions of their fellow-men, shunning what they usually shun, and
seeking what they usually seek.
[6] (1) When I saw that all these ordinary objects of desire would
be obstacles in the way of a search for something different and new -
nay, that they were so opposed thereto, that either they or it would
have to be abandoned, I was forced to inquire which would prove the
most useful to me: for, as I say, I seemed to be willingly losing
hold on a sure good for the sake of something uncertain. (6:2) However,
after I had reflected on the matter, I came in the first place to the
conclusion that by abandoning the ordinary objects of pursuit, and
betaking myself to a new quest, I should be leaving a good, uncertain
by reason of its own nature, as may be gathered from what has been
said, for the sake of a good not uncertain in its nature (for I sought
for a fixed good), but only in the possibility of its attainment.
[7] (1) Further reflection convinced me that if I could really get
to the root of the matter I should be leaving certain evils for a
certain good. (2) I thus perceived that I was in a state of great
peril, and I compelled myself to seek with all my strength for a
remedy, however uncertain it might be; as a sick man struggling with
a deadly disease, when he sees that death will surely be upon him
unless a remedy be found, is compelled to seek a remedy with all his
strength, inasmuch as his whole hope lies therein. (7:3) All the
objects pursued by the multitude not only bring no remedy that tends
to preserve our being, but even act as hindrances, causing the death
not seldom of those who possess them, [b] and always of those who
are possessed by them.
[8] (1) There are many examples of men who have suffered persecution
even to death for the sake of their riches, and of men who in pursuit
of wealth have exposed themselves to so many dangers, that they have
paid away their life as a penalty for their folly. (2) Examples are
no less numerous of men, who have endured the utmost wretchedness for
the sake of gaining or preserving their reputation. (3) Lastly,
are innumerable cases of men, who have hastened their death through
over-indulgence in sensual pleasure.
[9] (1) All these evils seem to have arisen from the fact, that
happiness or unhappiness is made wholly dependent on the quality
of the object which we love. (2) When a thing is not loved, no
quarrels will arise concerning it - no sadness be felt if it
hatred, in short no disturbances of the mind. (3) All these
arise from the love of what is perishable, such as the objects
already mentioned.
[10] (1) But love towards a thing eternal and infinite feeds the
mind wholly with joy, and is itself unmingled with any sadness,
wherefore it is greatly to be desired and sought for with all our
strength. (2) Yet it was not at random that I used the words,
"If I could go to the root of the matter," for, though what I have
urged was perfectly clear to my mind, I could not forthwith lay
aside all love of riches, sensual enjoyment, and fame.
[11] (1) One thing was evident, namely, that while my mind was
employed with these thoughts it turned away from its former objects
of desire, and seriously considered the search for a new principle;
this state of things was a great comfort to me, for I perceived
that the evils were not such as to resist all remedies. (11:2) Although
these intervals were at first rare, and of very short duration, yet
afterwards, as the true good became more and more discernible to me,
they became more frequent and more lasting; especially after I had
recognized that the acquisition of wealth, sensual pleasure, or fame,
is only a hindrance, so long as they are sought as ends not as means;
if they be sought as means, they will be under restraint, and, far
from being hindrances, will further not a little the end for which
they are sought, as I will show in due time.
[12] (1) I will here only briefly state what I mean by true good,
and also what is the nature of the highest good. (2) In order that
this may be rightly understood, we must bear in mind that the terms
good and evil are only applied relatively, so that the same thing
may be called both good and bad according to the relations in view,
in the same way as it may be called perfect or imperfect.
(3) Nothing regarded in its own nature can be called perfect or
imperfect; especially when we are aware that all things which come
to pass, come to pass according to the eternal order and fixed
laws of nature.
[13] (1) However, human weakness cannot attain to this order in its
own thoughts, but meanwhile man conceives a human character much more
stable than his own, and sees that there is no reason why he should
not himself acquire such a character. (2) Thus he is led to seek
for means which will bring him to this pitch of perfection, and
calls everything which will serve as such means a true good.
(13:3) The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other
individuals if possible, at the possession of the aforesaid
character. (4) What that character is we shall show in due time,
namely, that it is the knowledge of the union existing being
the mind and the whole of nature. [c]
[14] (1) This, then, is the end for which I strive, to attain to
such a character myself, and to endeavor that many should attain to
it with me. (2) In other words, it is part of my happiness to lend
a helping hand, that many others may understand even as I do, so
that their understanding and desire may entirely agree with my own.
(3) In order to bring this about, it is necessary to understand as
much of nature as will enable us to attain to the aforesaid character,
and also to form a social order such as is most conducive to the
attainment of this character by the greatest number with the least
difficulty and danger.
[15] (1) We must seek the assistance of Moral Philosophy [d] and
the Theory of Education; further, as health is no insignificant means
for attaining our end, we must also include the whole science of
Medicine, and, as many difficult things are by contrivance rendered
easy, and we can in this way gain much time and convenience, the
science of Mechanics must in no way be despised.
[16] (1) But before all things, a means must be devised for
improving the understanding and purifying it, as far as may be at
the outset, so that it may apprehend things without error, and in
the best possible way. (2) Thus it is apparent to everyone that I
wish to direct all science to one end [e] and aim, so that we may
attain to the supreme human perfection which we have named; and,
therefore, whatsoever in the sciences does not serve to promote
our object will have to be rejected as useless. (3) To sum up the
matter in a word, all our actions and thoughts must be directed to
this one end.
[17] (1) Yet, as it is necessary that while we are endeavoring to
attain our purpose, and bring the understanding into the right path
we should carry on our life, we are compelled first of all to lay
down certain rules of life as provisionally good, to wit the
following:-
I. (2) To speak in a manner intelligible to the multitude, and to
comply with every general custom that does not hinder the
attainment of our purpose. (3) For we can gain from the multitude
no small advantages, provided that we strive to accommodate
ourselves to its understanding as far as possible: moreover,
we shall in this way gain a friendly audience for the reception
of the truth.
II. (17:4) To indulge ourselves with pleasures only in so far as they
are necessary for preserving health.
III. (5) Lastly, to endeavor to obtain only sufficient money or other
commodities to enable us to preserve our life and health, and to
follow such general customs as are consistent with our purpose.
[18] (1) Having laid down these preliminary rules, I will betake
myself to the first and most important task, namely, the amendment
of the understanding, and the rendering it capable of understanding
things in the manner necessary for attaining our end. (2) In order
to bring this about, the natural order demands that I should here
recapitulate all the modes of perception, which I have hitherto
employed for affirming or denying anything with certainty, so that
I may choose the best, and at the same time begin to know my own
powers and the nature which I wish to perfect.
[19] (1) Reflection shows that all modes of perception or knowledge
may be reduced to four:-
I. (2) Perception arising from hearsay or from some sign which
everyone may name as he please.
II. (3) Perception arising from mere experience - that is, form
experience not yet classified by the intellect, and only so called
because the given event has happened to take place, and we have no
contradictory fact to set against it, so that it therefore remains
unassailed in our minds.
III. (19:4) Perception arising when the essence of one thing is inferred
from another thing, but not adequately; this comes when [f] from some
effect we gather its cause, or when it is inferred from some general
proposition that some property is always present.
IV. (5) Lastly, there is the perception arising when a thing is
perceived solely through its essence, or through the knowledge
of its proximate cause.
[20] (1) All these kinds of perception I will illustrate by examples.
(2) By hearsay I know the day of my birth, my parentage, and other
matters about which I have never felt any doubt. (3) By mere
experience I know that I shall die, for this I can affirm from
having seen that others like myself have died, though all did not
live for the same period, or die by the same disease. (4) I know
by mere experience that oil has the property of feeding fire, and
water of extinguishing it. (5) In the same way I know that a dog
is a barking animal, man a rational animal, and in fact nearly all
the practical knowledge of life.
[21] (1) We deduce one thing from another as follows: when we
clearly perceive that we feel a certain body and no other, we
thence clearly infer that the mind is united [g] to the body,
and that their union is the cause of the given sensation; but
we cannot thence absolutely understand [h] the nature of the
sensation and the union. (2) Or, after I have become acquainted
with the nature of vision, and know that it has the property of
making one and the same thing appear smaller when far off than
when near, I can infer that the sun is larger than it appears,
and can draw other conclusions of the same kind.
[22] (1) Lastly, a thing may be perceived solely through its essence;
when, from the fact of knowing something, I know what it is to know
that thing, or when, from knowing the essence of the mind, I know
that it is united to the body. (2) By the same kind of knowledge
we know that two and three make five, or that two lines each parallel
to a third, are parallel to one another, &c. (3) The things which I
have been able to know by this kind of knowledge are as yet very few.
[23] (1) In order that the whole matter may be put in a clearer
light, I will make use of a single illustration as follows.
(2) Three numbers are given - it is required to find a fourth,
which shall be to the third as the second is to the first.
(23:3) Tradesmen will at once tell us that they know what is required
to find the fourth number, for they have not yet forgotten the rule
which was given to them arbitrarily without proof by their masters;
others construct a universal axiom from their experience with simple
numbers, where the fourth number is self-evident, as in the case of
2, 4, 3, 6; here it is evident that if the second number be
multiplied by the third, and the product divided by the first,
the quotient is 6; when they see that by this process the number
is produced which they knew beforehand to be the proportional,
they infer that the process always holds good for finding a fourth
number proportional.
[24] (1) Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of the nineteenth
proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are
proportionals, namely, from the nature and property of proportion
it follows that the product of the first and fourth will be equal
to the product of the second and third: still they do not see the
adequate proportionality of the given numbers, or, if they do see it,
they see it not by virtue of Euclid's proposition, but intuitively,
without going through any process.
[25] (1) In order that from these modes of perception the best may
be selected, it is well that we should briefly enumerate the means
necessary for attaining our end.
I. (2) To have an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to
perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general.
II. To collect in this way the differences, the agreements, and the
oppositions of things.
III. To learn thus exactly how far they can or cannot be modified.
IV. To compare this result with the nature and power of man.
(4) We shall thus discern the highest degree of perfection
to which man is capable of attaining.
[26] (1) We shall then be in a position to see which mode of
perception we ought to choose. (2) As to the first mode, it is
evident that from hearsay our knowledge must always be uncertain,
and, moreover, can give us no insight into the essence of a thing,
as is manifest in our illustration; now one can only arrive at
knowledge of a thing through knowledge of its essence, as will
hereafter appear. (3) We may, therefore clearly conclude that
the certainty arising from hearsay cannot be scientific in its
character. (4) For simple hearsay cannot affect anyone whose
understanding does not, so to speak, meet it half way.
[27] (1) The second mode of perception [i] cannot be said to
give us the idea of the proportion of which we are in search.
(2) Moreover its results are very uncertain and indefinite,
for we shall never discover anything in natural phenomena by its
means, except accidental properties, which are never clearly
understood, unless the essence of the things in question be
known first. (3) Wherefore this mode also must be rejected.
[28] (1) Of the third mode of perception we may say in a manner
that it gives us the idea of the thing sought, and that it
us to draw conclusions without risk of error; yet it is not by
itself sufficient to put us in possession of the perfection we
aim at.
[29] (1) The fourth mode alone apprehends the adequate essence of
a thing without danger of error. (2) This mode, therefore, must be
the one which we chiefly employ. (3) How, then, should we avail
ourselves of it so as to gain the fourth kind of knowledge with
the least delay concerning things previously unknown? (4) I will
proceed to explain.
[30] (1) Now that we know what kind of knowledge is necessary for
us, we must indicate the way and the method whereby we may gain
the said knowledge concerning the things needful to be known.
(2) In order to accomplish this, we must first take care not to
commit ourselves to a search, going back to infinity - that is,
in order to discover the best method of finding truth, there is
no need of another method to discover such method; nor of a third
method for discovering the second, and so on to infinity. (3) By
such proceedings, we should never arrive at the knowledge of the
truth, or, indeed, at any knowledge at all. (30:4) The matter stands
on the same footing as the making of material tools, which might
be argued about in a similar way. (5) For, in order to work iron,
a hammer is needed, and the hammer cannot be forthcoming unless
it has been made; but, in order to make it, there was need
of another hammer and other tools, and so on to infinity.
(6) We might thus vainly endeavor to prove that men have no
power of working iron.
[31] (1) But as men at first made use of the instruments supplied
by nature to accomplish very easy pieces of workmanship, laboriously
and imperfectly, and then, when these were finished, wrought other
things more difficult with less labour and greater perfection;
and so gradually mounted from the simplest operations to the making
of tools, and from the making of tools to the making of more complex
tools, and fresh feats of workmanship, till they arrived at making,
complicated mechanisms which they now possess. (31:2) So, in like
manner, the intellect, by its native strength, [k], makes for itself
intellectual instruments, whereby it acquires strength for performing
other intellectual operations, [l], and from these operations
again fresh instruments, or the power of pushing its investigations
further, and thus gradually proceeds till it reaches the summit
of wisdom.
[32] (1) That this is the path pursued by the understanding may be
readily seen, when we understand the nature of the method for
finding out the truth, and of the natural instruments so necessary
complex instruments, and for the progress of investigation. I thus
proceed with my demonstration.
[33] (1) A true idea, [m], (for we possess a true idea) is something
different from its correlate (ideatum); thus a circle is different
from the idea of a circle. (2) The idea of a circle is not something
having a circumference and a center, as a circle has; nor is the idea
of a body that body itself. (3) Now, as it is something different
from its correlate, it is capable of being understood through itself;
in other words, the idea, in so far as its actual essence (essentia
formalis) is concerned, may be the subject of another subjective
essence (essentia objectiva). [33note1] (4) And, again, this second
subjective essence will, regarded in itself, be something real,
capable of being understood; and so on, indefinitely.
[34] (1) For instance, the man Peter is something real; the true
idea of Peter is the reality of Peter represented subjectively,
and is in itself something real, and quite distinct from the
actual Peter. (2) Now, as this true idea of Peter is in itself
something real, and has its own individual existence, it will
also be capable of being understood - that is, of being the
subject of another idea, which will contain by representation
(objective) all that the idea of Peter contains actually
(formaliter). (3) And, again, this idea of the idea of Peter
has its own individuality, which may become the subject of yet
another idea; and so on, indefinitely. (4) This everyone may
make trial of for himself, by reflecting that he knows what
Peter is, and also knows that he knows, and further knows that
he knows that he knows, &c. (34:5) Hence it is plain that, in
order to understand the actual Peter, it is not necessary first
to understand the idea of Peter, and still less the idea of
the idea of Peter. (6) This is the same as saying that, in order
to know, there is no need to know that we know, much less to
know that we know that we know. (7) This is no more necessary
than to know the nature of a circle before knowing the nature of
a triangle. [n]. (8) But, with these ideas, the contrary is the
case: for, in order to know that I know, I must first know.
[35] (1) Hence it is clear that certainty is nothing else than
the subjective essence of a thing: in other words, the mode in
which we perceive an actual reality is certainty. (2) Further,
it is also evident that, for the certitude of truth, no further
sign is necessary beyond the possession of a true idea: for,
as I have shown, it is not necessary to know that we know that
we know. (3) Hence, again, it is clear that no one can know
the nature of the highest certainty, unless he possesses an
adequate idea, or the subjective essence of a thing:
certainty is identical with such subjective essence.
[36] (1) Thus, as the truth needs no sign - it being to possess
the subjective essence of things, or, in other words, the ideas
of them, in order that all doubts may be removed - it follows
that the true method does not consist in seeking for the signs
of truth after the acquisition of the idea, but that the true
method teaches us the order in which we should seek for truth
itself, [o] or the subjective essences of things, or ideas,
for all these expressions are synonymous.