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ESSAYS, Political, Economical and Philosophical. Volume 1.

B >> Benjamin Rumford >> ESSAYS, Political, Economical and Philosophical. Volume 1.




If now, to this quantity of fuel,-- -- 0.09023 lb.
we add that necessary for heating the
loaf to the temperature of boiling
water, as above determined, -- -- -- 0.07335 lb.
--------
this gives the total quantity of fuel
necessary for baking one of these loaves
of bread,-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.16353 lb.

Now as these loaves, when baked into bread, weighed 2 lbs. 5
1/2 loths = 2 11/64 lbs. each and required, in being baked,
the consumption of 0.16353 of a pound of wood, this gives for
the expence of fuel in baking bread 0.07532 of a pound of
pine-wood to each pound of rye bread; which is about 13 1/4
lbs. of bread to each pound of wood.

But we have seen, from the results of the before-mentioned
experiments, that when the bread was baked under circumstances
the most favourable to the economy of fuel, no less than 80 lbs.
of pine-wood were employed in heating the oven to bake 304 lbs.
of bread, which gives less than 4 lbs. of bread to each pound
of wood; consequently, TWO THIRDS at least of the heat
generated in the combustion of the fuel must, in that case,
have been lost; and in all the other experiments the loss of
heat appears to have been still much greater.

A considerable loss of heat in baking will always be inevitable;
but it seems probable, that this loss might, with proper
attention to the construction of the oven, and to the
management of the fire, be reduced at least to one half the
quantity generated from the fuel in its combustion. In the
manner in which the baking business is now generally carried
on, much more than three quarters of the heat generated,
or which might be generated from the fuel consumed, is lost.


APPENDIX, No VIII.

The following Account of the Persons in the House of Industry
in Dublin, the 30th of April 1796, and of the Details of the
Manner and Expence of feeding them, was given to the Author,
by order of the Governors of that Institution.

Average of the Description of Poor for the Week ending
30th of April 1796.
Males. Females. Total.
Employed -- -- -- -- 74 352 426
Infirm and Incurable -- 172 585 757
Idiots -- -- -- -- 16 13 29
Blind-- -- -- -- -- 5 10 16
----- ----- ------
267 960 1227
In the Infirmary.
Sick Patients, Servants, etc. 88 200 }
}-- 343
Lunaticks-- -- -- -- 15 40 }
------
Total 1570

Employed at actual labour 322 Persons.
Ditto at menial offices 104 ditto
-----
Total 426

Amongst the 1570 Persons above mentioned, are 282 Children and
447 compelled Persons.

Of the Children, 205 are taught to spell, read, and write.


Saturday, April 30, 1796.

1227 Persons fed at Breakfast.

120 Servants in New-House,
a 8 oz. bread ------ 60 } lbs. loaves lb. value.
336 Incurables, Children, etc. } 186 is 41 1 1/2 L. 1 14
a 6 ditto --------126 }
771 Workers, etc. got Stirabout.
-----
1227

Weight of meal for Stirabout 4 cwt. costs L. 3 1 8

120 Servants in New-House }
get 1 quart butter-milk Gal. P.}
each 30 0 } 167 gallons of
1084 Workers, Incurables, etc. } butter-milk
1 pint ditto 135 4 } value 1 L.
23 Sucklers get no butter-milk }
----- Allowed for waste -- -- 1 4 }
1227

Brought down, L. 5 15 8
s. d.
Fuel to cook the Stirabout, 3 bush. cost 2 3 }
} 0 3 0 1/2
Salt for ditto, 1 qr. 3 lb cost-- -- 0 9 1/2 }
-------------
The Breakfast cost L. 5 18 8 1/2

Quantity of water, 5 barrels 6 gallons.


1227 Persons fed at Dinner.--BREAD and MEAL POTTAGE.
120 Servants a 9 oz. -- 68 }
bread } lbs. loaves. lb. value.
1107 Workers, Incurables, } 621 1/2 is 138 0 1/2 L. 5 10 4
etc. 8 oz. ditto--553 1/2}
Weight of meal for the pottage, 1 cwt. 3 qrs.-- -- -- 0 13 5
Pepper for ditto, half a pound -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 1
Ginger for ditto, 1 pound -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 3
Salt for ditto, 21 pound -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 0 7
Fuel for ditto, 3 bushels 2 pecks-- -- -- -- -- -- 0 2 7 1/2
-------------
Dinner cost L. 6 9 3 1/2


SUPPER.

For 165 Sickly Women on 6 oz, bread. 62 } lbs. loaves lb. value.
251 Children, 3 oz. do. 47 } 109 is 24 1 0 19 11

N.B. The expenses of Food for the Hospital, in which there are
343 persons, is not included in the above account.


Sunday, May 1, 1796.
1220 Persons fed at Breakfast.


120 Servants, a 8 oz. bread.
330 Incurables, Children, etc. 6 oz. do.
770 Workers, etc. get Stirabout.
-----
1220 Persons.

The same quantity of provisions delivered this day
for Breakfast as on Saturday, and cost the same: viz.
5L. 18s. 8 1/2d.


1220 Persons fed at Dinner.--BREAD, BEEF and BROTH.
Cost
120 Servants, a 9 oz. bread, 68 } lbs. loaves lbs. L. s. d.
1100 Workers, Incurables, etc. } 618 is 137 1 1/2 5 9 6
8 do.-- -- -- -- -- 550 }
-----
1220 Persons.
Cwt. qrs. lbs.
Weight of raw beef, 4 2 10
Allowed for bone, 1 0 0
-------------
5 2 10 -- 7 19 3
Meal for the broth, 1 2 0 -- 1 3 1 1/2
Waste bread for do. 1 0 0 -- 0 0 0
Salt for do. 0 0 24 -- 0 0 8
Pepper for do. 0 0 0 1/2 -- 0 1 1
Fuel, 4 bushels 2 pecks, -- 0 3 4 1/2
---------------
Total L. 14 17 0

SUPPER.

The same number of women and children as yesterday, and the
Supper cost the same: viz. 19s. 11d.

Wednesday, May 4, 1796.

1216 Persons fed at Breakfast.

120 Servants in New-House, a 8 oz. bread
334 Incurables, Children, etc. a 6 oz. do.
762 Workers, etc. get Stirabout.
-----
1216 Persons.

The same quantity of provisions, etc. delivered this day
for Breakfast as for Saturday, and cost the same: viz.
8L 18s. 8 1/2d.

1216 Persons fed at Dinner.--CALECANNON and BEER.

Cost.
Weight of raw potatoes Cwt. qrs. lbs. L. s. d.
for Calecannon,-- -- 19 0 0 -- 3 6 6
An allowance for waste, 1 0 0
-------------
Weight used, 18 0 0 --
Raw greens for ditto,-- 8 0 0 -- 1 6 0
Butter for ditto,-- -- 1 0 0 -- 3 12 0
Pepper for ditto,-- -- 0 0 0 1/2 -- 0 1 1
Ginger for ditto,-- -- 0 0 1 -- 0 1 3
Onions for ditto,-- -- 0 0 14 -- 0 2 0
Salt for ditto, -- -- 0 0 24 -- 0 0 8
Fuel, 4 bushels 2 pecks, -- 0 3 4
Time of boiling about four hours.

1193 Persons get 1 }
pint of beer Galls. p. } Barrs.
each, making 149 1 }Galls. Galls.
23 On the breast } 151 is 3 31 2 5 3
---- get no beer. }
1216 }
Allowed for }
waste, -- 1 7 }

Bread to Incurables and Children on the
breast, 43 loaves,-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 15 4
-----------
Total L. 12 13 5

SUPPER.

The same number of Women and Children as on
Saturday, and cost the same: viz. 19s 11d.

N.B. All these accounts are in avoirdupois weight,
and Irish money.


APPENDIX, No IX.

An Account of an EXPERIMENT made (under the Direction of the
AUTHOR) in the Kitchen of the HOUSE of INDUSTRY at DUBLIN,
in COOKING for the POOR.

May the 6th, 1796, a dinner was provided for 927 persons of
Calecannon, a kind of food in great repute in Ireland, composed
of Potatoes, boiled and mashed, mixed with about one-fifth of
their weight of boiled Greens, cut fine with sharp shovels, and
seasoned with butter, onions, salt, pepper, and ginger. The
ingredients were boiled in a very large iron boiler, of a
circular, or rather hemispherical form, capable of containing
near 400 gallons, and remarkably thick and heavy. 273 gallons
of pump water were put into this boiler; and the following
Table will show, in a satisfactory manner, the progress and the
result of the experiment:


Heat Contents of the Boiler
Fuel laid of the
Time. on Coals. Liquid Quantity
Pecks Weight Ingredients. Gall. lbs.
7h 48m 4 106 lb. 55 Water to boil 273
8h 15m 1 26 1/2 the Greens
40m 1 26 1/2 and Potatoes
9h 0m 1 26 1/2
15m 2 53 80
30m 1 26 1/2 90
45m 2 53 110
10h 0m 1 26 1/2 150
20m 212 The Greens
were now put 295 1/2
in.
2m 180
30m 1 26 1/2 190
45m 212
11h the Greens
taken out and 1615
Potatoes put
in.
11h 10m 2 53 180
20m 1 26 1/2 200
30m 212
45m Potatoes done.


GENERAL RESULTS of the EXPERIMENT.

The fuel used was Whitehaven coal: the quantity 17 pecks,
weighing 450 1/2 lbs.

The potatoes being mashed, (without peeling them,) and the
greens chopped fine with a sharp shovel, they were mixed
together, and 98 lbs of butter, 14 lbs. of onions boiled and
chopped fine, 40 lbs. of salt, 1 lb. of black pepper in powder,
and 1/2 lb. of ginger, being added, and the whole well mixed
together, this food was served out in portions of 1 quart, or
about 2 lbs. each, in wooden noggins, holding each 1 quart when
full.

Each of these portions of Calecannon (as this food is called in
Ireland) served one person for dinner and supper; and each
portion cost about 2 1/14 pence, Irish money, or it cost
something less than ONE PENNY sterling per pound.

Twelve pence sterling, make thirteen pence Irish.

The expence (reckoned in Irish money) of preparing this food,
was as follows: viz.
L. s. d.
Potatoes, 19 cwt. at 3s. 6d. per cwt. -- -- 3 6 6
(N.B. They weighed no more than 1615 lbs.
when picked and washed.)
Greens, 26 flaskets, at 10d. each, -- -- -- 1 1 10
Butter, 98 lbs. at 72s. per cwt. -- -- -- 3 3 0
Onions, 14 lbs. at 2s. per stone, -- -- -- 0 2 0
Ginger, 1/2 lbs. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 3
Salt, 40 lbs. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 1
Pepper, 1 lb. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 1
---------
L. 7 16 9

Expence for fuel, 17 pecks of coal,
at 1L. 3s. 3d. per ton, -- -- -- -- -- 0 3 2 1/2
-------------
Total L. 7 19 11 1/2

With this kind of food there is no allowance of bread, nor is
any necessary.

It would be hardly possible to invent a more nourishing or more
palatable kind of food, than Calecannon, as it is made in Ireland;
but the expence of it might be considerably diminished, by
using less butter in preparing it.

Salted herrings (which do not in general cost much more than a
penny the pound) might be used with great advantage to give it
a relish, particularly when a small proportion of butter is used.

In this experiment, 273 gallons of water, weighing about 2224 lbs.
avoirdupois, and being at the temperature of 55 degrees,
was made to boil, (in two hours and 32 minutes,) with the
combustion of 346 1/2 lbs. of coal; which gives rather less
than 6 1/2 lbs. of water, to each pound of coal consumed;
the water being heated 157 degrees, or from 55 to 212 degrees.

According to my experiments, 20 lbs. of water may be heated
180 degrees, (namely from 32 degrees the freezing point,
to 212 degrees the temperature of boiling water,) with the
heat generated in the combustion of 1 lb. of pine-wood;
consequently, the same quantity of wood (1 lb.) would heat
23 lb. of water 157 degrees, or from 55 to 212 degrees.

But M. Lavoisier has shown us by his experiments, that the
quantity of heat generated in the combustion of any given
weight of coal, is greater than that generated in the combustion
of the same weight of dry wood, in the proportion of 1089 to 600;
consequently, 1 lb. of coal ought to make 40 3/4 lbs. of water,
at the temperature 55 degrees, boil.

But in the foregoing experiment, 1 lb. of coal was consumed in
making 6 1/2 lbs. of water boil; consequently, more than 5/6
of the heat generated, or which might with proper management
have been generated in the combustion of the coal, was lost,
owing to the bad construction of the boiler and of the
fire-place.

Had the construction of the boiler and of the fire-place been
as perfect as they were in my experiments, a quantity of fuel
would have been sufficient, smaller than that actually used, in
the proportion of 6 1/2 to 40 3/4, or instead of 450 1/2 lbs.
of coal, 71 3/4 lbs. would have done the business; and,
instead of costing 3s. 2 1/2d., they would have cost less than
6 1/4 Irish money, or 5 3/4d. sterling, which is only about
1/3 per cent. of the cost of the ingredients used in preparing
the food, for the expence of fuel for cooking it.

These computations may serve to show, that I did not exaggerate,
when I gave it as my opinion, (in my Essay on Food,) that the
expence for the fuel necessary to be employed in cooking ought
never to exceed, even in this country, TWO PER CENT. of the
value of the ingredients of which the food is composed; that is
to say, when kitchen fire-places are well constructed.

Had the ingredients used in this experiment, viz.

2234 lbs. of water
1615 lbs. of potatoes,
98 lbs. of butter,
14 lbs. of onions,
40 lbs. of salt,
1 lb. of pepper, and
0 1/2 lb. of ginger,
------
making in all 3992 1/2 lbs., been made into a soup, instead of
being made into Calecannon, this, at 1 1/4 lb. (equal to one
pint and a quarter), the portion would have served to feed 3210
persons.

But if I can show, that in Ireland, where all the coals they
burn are imported from England, a good and sufficient meal of
victuals for 3210 persons may be provided with the expence of
only 5 3/4d. for the fuel necessary to cook it; I trust that
the account I ventured to publish in my first Essay, of the
expence for fuel in the kitchen of the Military Workhouse at
Munich, namely, that it did not amount to so much as 4 1/2d.
a day, when 1000 persons were fed, will no longer appear quite
so incredible, as it certainly must appear to those who are not
aware of the enormous waste which is made of fuel in the
various processes in which it is employed.

I shall think myself very fortunate, if what I have done in the
prosecution of these my favourite studies, should induce
ingenious men to turn their attention to the investigation of a
science, hitherto much neglected, and where every new
improvement must tend directly and powerfully to increase the
comforts and enjoyments of mankind.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

Footnotes for Essay V.

[1]
The number of horses in Bavaria alone amount to above 160,000

[2]
A particular account of these military posts is given in the
Second Chapter of the First Essay.

[3]
Suffice it to mention one among numberless facts, which might
be brought to prove these assertions: The Beggars of our
capital carry on an increasing and very lucrative trade, with
confessional and communion testimonials, which they sell to
people who daringly transgress the holy ecclesiastical laws,
by neglecting to confess and receive the holy sacrament of the
Lord's Supper at Easter. Some of these impious wretches
receive the sacrament, at least twice in a day, in order not to
lose their customers; if the demands for communion testimonials
are great, or come late.----Ye priests and preachers of the
gospel, can you still forbear raising your voices against Beggars?

[4]
To these the President of the Chamber of Finances has since been added.

[5]
Since the year 1792 the Elector, to relieve the Institution
from that burden, has ordered the police guards to be paid out
of the Public Treasury of the Chamber of Finances.

[6]
The Bavarian pound which was used in these experiments,
and which is divided into 32 loths, is to the pound Avoirdupois
as 12,384 is to 10,000,--or nearly as 5 to 4.

This the end of Volume 1 of Count Rumford's Essays

***Etext editors notes follow...
Some modernizations of old spellings have been applied, these are:

show for shew
showed for shewed
showing for shewing
shown for shewn
increased for encreased;
economical for oeconomical
crowded for crouded
control for controul

Appendix III contains a table that originally appeared landscape
across a number of pages.

I have split this into two, so it will fit comfortable across a
normal display screen. I have however added letters to match the
two parts together. Also as the concept of pages does not apply,
the various 'Carried forward' and 'Brought over totals' have been
omitted.


***End of Etext editor's notes.

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