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The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals

C >> Charles Darwin >> The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals




The term `disgust,' in its simplest sense, means something offensive
to the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited
by anything unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food.
In Tierra del Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold
preserved meat which I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly
showed utter disgust at its softness; whilst I felt utter disgust
at my food being touched by a naked savage, though his hands did
not appear dirty. A smear of soup on a man's beard looks disgusting,
though there is of course nothing disgusting in the soup itself.
I presume that this follows from the strong association in our minds
between the sight of food, however circumstanced, and the idea
of eating it.



[6] `Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.

As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection
with the act of eating or tasting, it is natural that its
expression should consist chiefly in movements round the mouth.
But as disgust also causes annoyance, it is generally accompanied
by a frown, and often by gestures as if to push away or to guard
oneself against the offensive object. In the two photographs
(figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has simulated this
expression with some success. With respect to the face,
moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the mouth being
widely opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting;
by blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing
the throat. Such guttural sounds are written _ach_ or _ugh_;
and their utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder,
the arms being pressed close to the sides and the shoulders
raised in the same manner as when horror is experienced.[7]
Extreme disgust is expressed by movements round the month
identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting.
The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted,
which wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip
protruded and everted as much as possible. This latter movement
requires the contraction of the muscles which draw downwards
the corners of the mouth.[8]


[7] See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Introduction
to the `Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit.
1872, p. xxxvii.

It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting
is induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken
of any unusual food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten;
although there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it.
When vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real cause--
as from too rich food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic--it does not
ensue immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and easily
excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors
must formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants
and some other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed
with them, or which they thought would disagree with them; and now,
though this power has been lost, as far as the will is concerned,
it is called into involuntary action, through the force of a formerly
well-established habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea
of having partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting.
This suspicion receives support from the fact, of which I am assured
by Mr. Sutton, that the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit
whilst in perfect health, which looks as if the act were voluntary.
We can see that as man is able to communicate by language to his
children and others, the knowledge of the kinds of food to be avoided,
he would have little occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection;
so that this power would tend to be lost through disuse.


[8] Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower lip,
the corners are drawn downwards by the _depressores anguli oris_.
Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes that
this is effected by the _musculus quadratus menti_.

As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste,
it is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching
or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting
food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately offensive
odour should cause the various expressive movements of disgust.
The tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately strengthened
in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon lost by longer
familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary restraint.
For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which had not
been sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my servant and myself
(we not having had much experience in such work) retch so violently,
that we were compelled to desist. During the previous days I had
examined some other skeletons, which smelt slightly; yet the odour
did not in the least affect me, but, subsequently for several days,
whenever I handled these same skeletons, they made me retch.

From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that
the various movements, which have now been described as expressing
contempt and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world.
Dr. Rothrock, for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with
respect to certain wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says
that when a Greenlander denies anything with contempt or horror
he turns up his nose, and gives a slight sound through it.[9] Mr. Scott
has sent me a graphic description of the face of a young Hindoo at
the sight of castor-oil, which he was compelled occasionally to take.
Mr. Scott has also seen the same expression on the faces of high-caste
natives who have approached close to some defiling object.
Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians "express contempt by shooting
out the lips and hissing through them, and by turning up the nose."
The tendency either to snort through the nose, or to make a noise
expressed by _ugh_ or _ach_, is noticed by several of my correspondents.


[9] As quoted by Tylor, `Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 169.

Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust;
and spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive
from the mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, "I spit at him--
call him a slanderous coward and a villain." So, again, Falstaff says,
"Tell thee what, Hal,--if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face."
Leichhardt remarks that the Australians "interrupted their speeches
by spitting, and uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently
expressive of their disgust." And Captain Burton speaks
of certain negroes "spitting with disgust upon the ground."
Captain Speedy informs me that this is likewise the case with
the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the Malays of Malacca
the expression of disgust "answers to spitting from the mouth;"
and with the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges "to spit at one is
the highest mark of contempt."

I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my
infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold water,
and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put into
his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a shape
which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out; the tongue being
likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied by a little shudder.
It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child felt real disgust--
the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and consideration.
The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object fall out of the mouth,
may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue universally serves
as a sign of contempt and hatred.[11]


[10] Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, `On the Origin
of Language,' 1866, p. 75.

We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are
expressed in many different ways, by movements of the features,
and by various gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world.
They all consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion
of some real object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not
excite in us certain other strong emotions, such as rage or terror;
and through the force of habit and association similar actions
are performed, whenever any analogous sensation arises in our minds.

_Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c_.--It is doubtful whether
the greater number of the above complex states of mind are revealed by any
fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or delineated.
When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as _lean-faced_, or _black_, or _pale_,
and Jealousy as "_the green-eyed monster_;" and when Spenser describes
Suspicion as "_foul, ill-favoured, and grim_," they must have felt
this difficulty. Nevertheless, the above feelings--at least many of them--
can be detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are often
guided in a much greater degree than we suppose by our previous knowledge
of the persons or circumstances.

My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my query,
whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized amongst
the various races of man; and I have confidence in their answers,
as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized. In the cases
in which details are given, the eyes are almost always referred to.
The guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or to give him
stolen looks. The eyes are said "to be turned askant," or "to waver
from side to side," or "the eyelids to be lowered and partly closed."
This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to the Australians,
and by Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless movements of the eyes
apparently follow, as will be explained when we treat of blushing,
from the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze of his accuser.
I may add, that I have observed a guilty expression, without a
shade of fear, in some of my own children at a very early age.
In one instance the expression was unmistakably clear in a child two years
and seven months old, and led to the detection of his little crime.
It was shown, as I record in my notes made at the time, by an
unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner,
impossible to describe.


[11] This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist.
of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and he adds, "it is not
clear why this should be so."

Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the eyes;
for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the force
of long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body.
Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks,[12] "When there is a desire to see something
on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it,
the tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head,
and to make the required adjustment entirely with the eyes;
which are, therefore, drawn very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes
are turned to one side, while the face is not turned to the same side,
we get the natural language of what is called slyness."


[12] `Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.

Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority
over others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty
(_haut_), or high, and makes himself appear as large as possible;
so that metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride.
A peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers,
is sometimes said to be an emblem of pride.[13] The arrogant man
looks down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends
to see them; or he may show his contempt by slight movements,
such as those before described, about the nostrils or lips.
Hence the muscle which everts the lower lip has been called
the _musculus superbus_. In some photographs of patients
affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr. Crichton Browne,
the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly closed.
This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume,
from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself.
The whole expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that
of humility; so that nothing need here be said of the latter
state of mind.


_Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders_.--When a man wishes
to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being done,
he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same time,
if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely inwards,
raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers separated.
The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows are elevated,
and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth is generally opened.
I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously the features are thus
acted on, that though I had often intentionally shrugged my shoulders
to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at all aware that my eyebrows
were raised and mouth opened, until I looked at myself in a glass;
and since then I have noticed the same movements in the faces of others.
In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4, Mr. Rejlander has successfully
acted the gesture of shrugging the shoulders.


[12] Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark,
and has some good observations on the expression of pride.
See Sir C. Bell (`Anatomy of Expression,' p. 111) on the action
of the _musculus superbus_.

Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other
European nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently
and energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture
varies in all degrees from the complex movement, just described,
to only a momentary and scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders;
or, as I have noticed in a lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere
turning slightly outwards of the open hands with separated fingers.
I have never seen very young English children shrug their shoulders,
but the following case was observed with care by a medical professor
and excellent observer, and has been communicated to me by him.
The father of this gentleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady.
His wife is of British extraction on both sides, and my informant
does not believe that she ever shrugged her shoulders in her life.
His children have been reared in England, and the nursemaid is a
thorough Englishwoman, who has never been seen to shrug her shoulders.
Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at the age
of between sixteen and eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at
the time, "Look at the little French girl shrugging her shoulders!"
At first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little
backwards and on one side, but she did not, as far as was observed,
move her elbows and hands in the usual manner. The habit gradually
wore away, and now, when she is a little over four years old,
she is never seen to act thus. The father is told that he sometimes
shrugs his shoulders, especially when arguing with any one; but it
is extremely improbable that his daughter should have imitated him at
so early an age; for, as he remarks, she could not possibly have often
seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit had been acquired
through imitation, it is not probable that it would so soon have been
spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we shall immediately see,
by a second child, though the father still lived with his family.
This little girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian grandfather
in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She also presents another and
very curious resemblance to him, namely, by practising a singular trick.
When she impatiently wants something, she holds out her little hand,
and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index and middle finger:
now this same trick was frequently performed under the same circumstances
by her grandfather.

This gentleman's second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before
the age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit.
It is of course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister;
but she continued it after her sister had lost the habit.
She at first resembled her Parisian grandfather in a less degree
than did her sister at the same age, but now in a greater degree.
She likewise practises to the present time the peculiar habit of
rubbing together, when impatient, her thumb and two of her fore-fingers.

In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given
in a former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture;
for no one, I presume, will attribute to mere coincidence
so peculiar a habit as this, which was common to the grandfather
and his two grandchildren who had never seen him.

Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they
have inherited the habit from their French progenitors,
although they have only one quarter French blood in their veins,
and although their grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders.
There is nothing very unusual, though the fact is interesting,
in these children having gained by inheritance a habit during
early youth, and then discontinuing it; for it is of frequent
occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain characters
are retained for a period by the young, and are then lost.

As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree
that so complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders,
together with the accompanying movements, should be innate,
I was anxious to ascertain whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman,
who could not have learnt the habit by imitation, practised it.
And I have heard, through Dr. Innes, from a lady who has
lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her shoulders,
turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same
manner as other people, and under the same circumstances.
I was also anxious to learn whether this gesture was practised
by the various races of man, especially by those who never have
had much intercourse with Europeans. We shall see that they act
in this manner; but it appears that the gesture is sometimes
confined to merely raising or shrugging the shoulders,
without the other movements.

Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars
(the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in the
Botanic Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared
that they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight.
He ordered a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug
of his shoulders and a lateral shake of his head, said he could not.
Mr. Scott knowing that the man was lazy, thought he could,
and insisted on his trying. His face now became pale, his arms
dropped to his sides, his mouth and eyes were widely opened,
and again surveying the tree, he looked askant at Mr. Scott,
shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows, extended his open hands,
and with a few quick lateral shakes of the head declared his inability.
Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the natives of India shrugging
their shoulders; but he has never seen the elbows turned so much
inwards as with us; and whilst shrugging their shoulders they
sometimes lay their uncrossed hands on their breasts.

With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis
(true Malays, though speaking a different, language), Mr. Geach has
often seen this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer
to my query descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands,
and face, Mr. Geach remarks, "it is performed in a beautiful style."
I have lost an extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging
the shoulders by some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago
in the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me
that the Abyssinians shrug their shoulders but enters into no details.
Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly
as described in my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended,
would not go in the proper direction which had been pointed out to him.

Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian
tribes of the western parts of the United States, "I have on a few
occasions detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest
of the demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed."
Fritz Muller informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil
shrugging their shoulders; but it is of course possible that they
may have learnt to do so by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has
never seen this gesture with the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika,
judging from his answer, did not even understand what was meant
by my description. Mr. Swinhoe is also doubtful about the Chinese;
but he has seen them, under the circumstances which would make us
shrug our shoulders, press their right elbow against their side,
raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with the palm directed
towards the person addressed, and shake it from right to left.
Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants
answer by a simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative.
Mr. Bunnett, who has had excellent opportunities for observation
on the borders of the Colony of Victory, also answers by a "yes,"
adding that the gesture is performed "in a more subdued and less
demonstrative manner than is the case with civilized nations."
This circumstance may account for its not having been noticed
by four of my informants.

These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes
of India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of
North America, and apparently to the Australians--many of these natives
having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans--are sufficient
to show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases
by the other proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.

This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action
on our own part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action
performed by another person which we cannot prevent.
It accompanies such speeches as, "It was not my fault;"
"It is impossible for me to grant this favour;" "He must follow his
own course, I cannot stop him." Shrugging the shoulders likewise
expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called,
as I have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles."
Shylock the Jew, says,

"Signor Antonio, many a time and oft
In the Rialto have you rated me
About my monies and usances;
Still have I borne it with a patient shrug."
_Merchant of Venice_, act 1. sc. 3.


Sir C. Bell has given[14] a life-like figure of a man,
who is shrinking back from some terrible danger,
and is on the point of screaming out in abject terror.
He is represented with his shoulders lifted up almost to his ears;
and this at once declares that there is no thought of resistance.

As shrugging the shoulders generally implies "I cannot do this or that,"
so by a slight change, it sometimes implies "I won't do it."
The movement then expresses a dogged determination not to act.
Olmsted describes[15] an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug
to his shoulders, when he was informed that a party of men were
Germans and not Americans, thus expressing that he would have
nothing to do with them. Sulky and obstinate children may be seen
with both their shoulders raised high up; but this movement is not
associated with the others which generally accompany a true shrug.
An excellent observer[16] in describing a young man who was
determined not to yield to his father's desire, says, "He thrust
his hands deep down into his pockets, and set up his shoulders
to his ears, which was a good warning that, come right or wrong,
this rock should fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would;
and that any remonstrance on the subject was purely futile."
As soon as the son got his own way, he "put his shoulders into
their natural position."


[14] `Anatomy of Expression,' p. 166.

[15] `Journey through Texas,' p. 352.

Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed,
one over the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have
thought this little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not
Dr. W. Ogle remarked to me that he had two or three times observed
it in patients who were preparing for operations under chloroform.
They exhibited no great fear, but seemed to declare by this posture
of their hands, that they had made up their minds, and were resigned
to the inevitable.

We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they feel,--
whether or not they wish to show this feeling,--that they
cannot or will not do something, or will not resist something
if done by another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time
often bending in their elbows, showing the palms of their hands
with extended fingers, often throwing their heads a little
on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths.
These states of the mind are either simply passive,
or show a determination not to act. None of the above
movements are of the least service. The explanation lies,
I cannot doubt, in the principle of unconscious antithesis.
This principle here seems to come into play as clearly as in
the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage, puts himself in
the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself appear
terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate,
throws his whole body into a directly opposite attitude,
though this is of no direct use to him.

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