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The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals

C >> Charles Darwin >> The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals




Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with
"the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred,
more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts."
He further maintains that their faces "seem chiefly capable of expressing
rage and fear."[14] But man himself cannot express love and humility
by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping ears,
hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved master.
Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of volition
or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and smiling
cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had been
questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no doubt
have answered that this animal had been created with special instincts,
adapting him for association with man, and that all further enquiry
on the subject was superfluous.

[12] `Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.

[13] Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p.
28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies
all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man
for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several
of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in `Annals
and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.

[14] `Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138.

Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle
has been developed solely for the sake of expression,
he seems never to have reflected on the principle of evolution.
He apparently looks at each species as a separate creation.
So it is with the other writers on Expression. For instance,
Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of the limbs,
refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks:[16]
"Le createur n'a donc pas eu a se preoccuper ici des besoins de
la mecanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou--que l'on me pardonne
cette maniere de parler--par une divine fantaisie, mettre en
action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles a la fois,
lorsqu'il a voulu que les signes caracteristiques des passions,
meme les plus fugaces, lussent ecrits passagerement sur la
face de l'homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une fois cree,
il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner
a tout etre humain la faculte instinctive d'exprimer toujours
ses sendments par la contraction des memes muscles."

Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller, says,[17] "The completely
different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups
of the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this
we are quite ignorant."

[15] `De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73.

[16] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31.

[17] `Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p. 934.

No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed
as independent creations, an effectual stop is put to our
natural desire to investigate as far as possible the causes
of Expression. By this doctrine, anything and everything can
be equally well explained; and it has proved as pernicious with
respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural history.
With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair under
the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth under
that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief
that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition.
The community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species,
as in the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man
and by various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible,
if we believe in their descent from a common progenitor.
He who admits on general grounds that the structure and habits
of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the whole
subject of Expression in a new and interesting light.

The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements
being often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature.
A difference may be clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible,
at least I have found it so, to state in what the difference consists.
When we witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly
excited, that close observation is forgotten or rendered
almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious proofs.
Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error;
for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect
to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence.
Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne's great experience, he for a long
time fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted
under certain emotions, whereas he ultimately convinced himself
that the movement was confined to a single muscle.

In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
independently of common opinion, how far particular movements
of the features and gestures are really expressive of certain states
of the mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable.
In the first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions,
as Sir C. Bell remarks, "with extraordinary force;" whereas, in after life,
some of our expressions "cease to have the pure and simple source
from which they spring in infancy."[18]

In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to
be studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this,
so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction
to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum
near Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject.
This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious
notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points;
and I can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also,
to the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum,
interesting statements on two or three points.

Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles
in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus
produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale.
It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates,
without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons
of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case,
by what emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated;
and I recorded their answers in the words which they used.
Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone,
though described in not exactly the same terms; and these may,
I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified.
On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced
in regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way,
by convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination;
for when I first looked through Dr. Duchenne's photographs,
reading at the same time the text, and thus learning what was intended,
I was struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only
a few exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had examined them without
any explanation, no doubt I should have been as much perplexed,
in some cases, as other persons have been.

[18] "Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198.

Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters
in painting and sculpture, who are such close observers.
Accordingly, I have looked at photographs and engravings of many
well-known works; but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited.
The reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object;
and strongly contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.[19] The
story of the composition is generally told with wonderful force
and truth by skilfully given accessories.

[19] See remarks to this effect in Lessing's `Lacooon,' translated
by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.

Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether
the same expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been
asserted without much evidence, with all the races of mankind,
especially with those who have associated but little
with Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the features
or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of man,
we may infer with much probability, that such expressions
are true ones,--that is, are innate or instinctive.
Conventional expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual
during early life, would probably have differed in the
different races, in the same manner as do their languages.
Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following
printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to,
that actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted.
These queries were written after a considerable interval of time,
during which my attention had been otherwise directed,
and I can now see that they might have been greatly improved.
To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript,
a few additional remarks:--

(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
and by the eyebrows being raised?

(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin
allows it to be visible? and especially how low down the body
does the blush extend?

(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body
and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?

(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand
any puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?

(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed,
and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which
the French call the "Grief muscle"? The eyebrow in this state
becomes slightly oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end;
and the forehead is transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not
across the whole breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise.
(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little
wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back
at the corners?

(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man
whom he addresses?

(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized,
which is chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed,
a lowering brow and a slight frown?

(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips
and by turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?

(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down,
the upper lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration,
something like incipient vomiting, or like something spit out
of the mouth?

(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner
as with Europeans?

(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring
tears into the eyes?

(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something
being done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders,
turn inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms;
with the eyebrows raised?

(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?

(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized?
though I know not how these can be defined.

(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken
laterally in negation?


Observations on natives who have had little communication
with Europeans would be of course the most valuable,
though those made on any natives would be of much interest to me.
General remarks on expression are of comparatively little value;
and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted.
A definite description of the countenance under any emotion
or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under
which it occurred, would possess much value.


To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different observers,
several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines, to all of whom
I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have taken, and for
the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their names, &c., towards
the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my present remarks.
The answers relate to several of the most distinct and savage races of man.
In many instances, the circumstances have been recorded under which
each expression was observed, and the expression itself described.
In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers
have been simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution.
It follows, from the information thus acquired, that the same state
of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity;
and this fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close similarity
in bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races, of mankind.

Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended. as closely as I could,
to the expression of the several passions in some of the
commoner animals; and this I believe to be of paramount importance,
not of course for deciding how far in man certain expressions
are characteristic of certain states of mind, but as affording
the safest basis for generalisation on the causes, or origin,
of the various movements of Expression. In observing animals,
we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination;
and we may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional.


From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature
of some expressions (the changes in the features being often
extremely slight); our sympathy being easily aroused when we
behold any strong emotion, and our attention thus distracted;
our imagination deceiving us, from knowing in a vague manner
what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the exact
changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our long
familiarity with the subject,--from all these causes combined,
the observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons,
whom I have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered.
Hence it is difficult to determine, with certainty,
what are the movements of the features and of the body,
which commonly characterize certain states of the mind.
Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have,
as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,--
of the insane,--of the different races of man,--of works of art,--
and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism,
as effected by Dr. Duchenne.

But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding
the cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether
any theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as
well as we can by our reason, without the aid of any rules,
which of two or more explanations is the most satisfactory, or are
quite unsatisfactory, I see only one way of testing our conclusions.
This is to observe whether the same principle by which one expression can,
as it appears, be explained, is applicable in other allied cases;
and especially, whether the same general principles can be applied
with satisfactory results, both to man and the lower animals.
This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the most serviceable of all.
The difficulty of judging of the truth of any theoretical explanation,
and of testing it by some distinct line of investigation, is the great
drawback to that interest which the study seems well fitted to excite.

Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they
were commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day,
I have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date,
I was already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution,
or of the derivation of species from other and lower forms.
Consequently, when I read Sir C. Bell's great work, his view,
that man had been created with certain muscles specially adapted
for the expression of his feelings, struck me as unsatisfactory.
It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our feelings
by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been
in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how such
habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree.
The whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect,
and each expression demanded a rational explanation.
This belief led me to attempt the present work, however imperfectly
it may have been executed.--------


I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said,
I am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions
exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some
of the circumstances under which the observations were in each
case made. Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence
of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from
Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my queries.
This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian aborigines
rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man.
It will be seen that the observations have been chiefly made
in the south, in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria;
but some excellent answers have been received from the north.

Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations,
made several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland.
To Mr. R. Brough Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted
for observations made by himself, and for sending me several
of the following letters, namely:--From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer,
of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, Victoria, who has
had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel Wilson,
a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the
Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang,
of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines,
old and young, are collected from all parts of the colony.
From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate
and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy.
From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders
of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe
many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men.
He compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen
long resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer,
a missionary in a remote part of Gippsland, Victoria.

I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Muller,
of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me
others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters.

In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been
remarkably full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances
recorded under which the observations were made.

The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect
to the Dyaks of Borneo.

Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach
(to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a
mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives,
who had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long
letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression.
He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.

The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe,
also observed for me the Chinese in their native country;
and he made inquiries from others whom he could trust.

In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official
capacity in the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency,
attended to the expression of the inhabitants, but found much
difficulty in arriving at any safe conclusions, owing to
their habitual concealment of all emotions in the presence
of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from Mr. West,
the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native
gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott,
curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various
tribes of men therein employed during a considerable period,
and no one has sent me such full and valuable details.
The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical
studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject.
For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers
to some of my queries.

Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power.
It would have been comparatively easy to have obtained information
in regard to the negro slaves in America; but as they have long
associated with white men, such observations would have possessed
little value. In the southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber
observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers.
Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations on the natives,
and procured for me a curious document, namely, the opinion,
written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief Sandilli,
on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions
of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians,
answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations
made on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge.
Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions
of the natives, as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile.

On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist
residing with the Fuegians, answered some few questions
about their expression, addressed to him many years ago.
In the northern half of the continent Dr. Rothrock attended to the
expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the Nasse River,
in North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews Assistant-Surgeon
in the United States Army, also observed with special care
(after having seen my queries, as printed in the `Smithsonian Report')
some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United States,
namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines;
and his answers have proved of the highest value.

Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.--------


As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part
of this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and two others,
with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde's well-known
`Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' The same letters
refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given
of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude.
The facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed,
hardly appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented.
Some writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs,
with one unpaired;[20] but others make the number much larger,
amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are,
as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject,
very variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly
alike in half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They are also variable in function.
Thus the power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much
in different persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils
is also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22] variable in a remarkable degree;
and other such cases could be given.

[20] Mr. Partridge in Todd's `Cyclopaedia of Anatomy
and Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227.

[21] `La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the
number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.

[22] " `Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91.

Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to
Mr. Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann,
of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants;
and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl.
I have already expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously
permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied and reduced.
All these photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process,
and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are
referred to by Roman numerals.

I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme
pains which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions
of various animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere,
has had the kindness to give me two drawings of dogs--one in a
hostile and the other in a humble and caressing frame of mind.
Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches of dogs.
Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks.
Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May,
and those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced
by Mr. Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved:
by this means almost complete fidelity is ensured.

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