A	>>	B	>>	C	>>	D	>>	E
F	>>	G	>>	H	>>	I	>>	J
K	>>	L	>>	M	>>	N	>>	O
P	>>	R	>>	S	>>	T	>>	U
V	>>	W	>>			X	>>	Z

Edward Gibbon - "The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"

Francis Hodgson Burnett - "The Lost Prince"

Kate Douglas Wiggin - "The Birds' Christmas Carol"

William Wells Brown - "Clotel; or, The President's Daughter"

The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals

C >> Charles Darwin >> The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals




[13] Muller remarks (`Elements of Physiology,' Eng. tr. vol. ii. p. 1311)
on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.

[14] Dr. Maudsley remarks (`Body and Mind,' p. 10) that "reflex movements
which commonly effect a useful end may, under the changed circumstances
of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the occasion of violent
suffering and of a most painful death."

It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog,
when it wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh,
and which movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose,
were not at first performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy
through long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously,
or independently of the cerebral hemispheres.

So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired
by the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger,
whenever any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen,
is accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes,
the most tender and sensitive organs of the body; and it is,
I believe, always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration,
which is the natural preparation for any violent effort. But when a man
or horse starts, his heart beats wildly against his ribs, and here it
may be truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control
of the will, partaking in the general reflex movements of the body.
To this point, however, I shall return in a future chapter.

The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated
by a bright light, is another instance of a movement,
which it appears cannot possibly have been at first voluntarily
performed and then fixed by habit; for the iris is not known
to be under the conscious control of the will in any animal.
In such cases some explanation, quite distinct from habit,
will have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force
from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells,
as in the case of a bright light on the retina causing
a sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how some reflex
actions originated. A radiation of nerve-force of this kind,
if it caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation,
as in the case of the contraction of the iris preventing too much
light from falling on the retina, might afterwards have been
taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose.

It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and instincts;
and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient importance,
would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex actions, when once
gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified independently
of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct purpose.
Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have every
reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for although
some instincts have been developed simply through long-continued
and inherited habit, other highly complex ones have been developed
through the preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts--
that is, through natural selection.

I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware,
in a very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions,
because they are often brought into play in connection with movements
expressive of our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least
some of them might have been Erst acquired through the will in order
to satisfy a desire, or to relieve a disagreeable sensation.


_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_.--
I have already given in the case of Man several instances
of movements associated with various states of the mind or body,
which are now purposeless, but which were originally of use,
and are still of use under certain circumstances. As this subject
is very important for us, I will here give a considerable number
of analogous facts, with reference to animals; although many
of them are of a very trifling nature. My object is to show that
certain movements were originally performed for a definite end,
and that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are still
pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use.
That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited,
we may infer from such actions being performed in the same manner
by all the individuals, young and old, of he same species.
We shall also see that they are excited by the most diversified,
often circuitous, and sometimes mistaken associations.

Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their
fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down
the grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did,
when they lived on open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals, fennecs,
and other allied animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw
in this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers,
after observing for some months, have never seen the wolves thus behave.
A semi-idiotic dog--and an animal in this condition would be particularly
liable to follow a senseless habit--was observed by a friend to turn
completely round on a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep.

Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare to rush
or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it would appear,
to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their rush; and this habit
in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in our pointers and setters.
Now I have noticed scores of times that when two strange dogs meet on
an open road, the one which first sees the other, though at the distance
of one or two hundred yards, after the first glance always lowers its bead,
generally crouches a little, or even lies down; that is, he takes the proper
attitude for concealing himself and {illust. caption = for making a rush
or FIG. 4.--Small dog watching a cat on a spring, although the road table.
From a photograph taken is quite open and The distance Mr. Rejlander.} great.
Again, dogs of all kinds when intently watching and slowly approaching
their prey, frequently keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time,
ready for the next cautious step; and this is eminently characteristic
of the pointer. But from habit they behave in exactly the same manner
whenever their attention is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot
of a high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side,
with one leg doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention
of making a cautious approach.

Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four
feet a few scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement,
as if for the purpose of covering up their excrement
with earth, in nearly the same manner as do cats.
Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens in exactly
the same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers,
neither wolves, jackals, nor foxes, when they have the means
of doing so, ever cover up their excrement, any more than do dogs.
All these animals, however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we
rightly understand the meaning of the above cat-like habit,
of which there can be little doubt, we have a purposeless remnant
of an habitual movement, which was originally followed by some
remote progenitor of the dog-genus for a definite purpose,
and which has been retained for a prodigious length of time.

Dogs and jackals[15] take much pleasure in rolling and
rubbing their necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems
delightful to them, though dogs at least do not eat carrion.
Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for me, and has given them carrion,
but has never seen them roll on it. I have heard it remarked,
and I believe it to be true, that the larger dogs, which are
probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in carrion
as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals.
When a piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine
and she is not hungry (and I have heard of similar instances),
she first tosses it about and worries it, as if it were a rat
or other prey; she then repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it
were a piece of carrion, and at last eats it. It would appear
that an imaginary relish has to be given to the distasteful morsel;
and to effect this the dog acts in his habitual manner,
as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like carrion,
though he knows better than we do that this is not the case.
I have seen this same terrier act in the same manner after
killing a little bird or mouse.


[15] See Mr. F. H. Salvin's account of a tame jackal in `Land
and Water,' October, 1869.

Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet;
and when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit,
that they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground
in a useless and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to,
when thus scratched with a stick, will sometimes show her delight
by another habitual movement, namely, by licking the air as if it
were my hand.

Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies
which they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows
another where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other.
A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, observed that
when he rubbed his horse's neck, the animal protruded his head,
uncovered his teeth, and moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling
another horse's neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck.
If a horse is much tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish to bite
something becomes so intolerably strong, that he will clatter
his teeth together, and though not vicious, bite his groom.
At the same time from habit he closely depresses his ears,
so as to protect them from being bitten, as if he were fighting
with another horse.

A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach
which he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the ground.
Now when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are eager
for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of my horses
thus behave when they see or hear the corn given to their neighbours.
But here we have what may almost be called a true expression, as pawing
the ground is universally recognized as a sign of eagerness.

Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth;
and my grandfather[17]{sic} saw a kitten scraping ashes over
a spoonful of pure water spilt on the hearth; so that here
an habitual or instinctive action was falsely excited, not by
a previous act or by odour, but by eyesight. It is well known
that cats dislike wetting their feet, owing, it is probable,
to their having aboriginally inhabited the dry country of Egypt;
and when they wet their feet they shake them violently.
My daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head
of a kitten; and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner;
so that here we have an habitual movement falsely excited
by an associated sound instead of by the sense of touch.

Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary
glands of their mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk,
or to make it flow. Now it is very common with young cats,
and not at all rare with old cats of the common and Persian breeds
(believed by some naturalists to be specifically extinct),
when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or other soft substance,
to pound it quietly and alternately with their fore-feet;
their toes being spread out and claws slightly protruded,
precisely as when sucking their mother. That it is the same
movement is clearly shown by their often at the same time
taking a bit of the shawl into their mouths and sucking it;
generally closing their eyes and purring from delight.
This curious movement is commonly excited only in association with
the sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen an old cat,
when pleased by having its back scratched, pounding the air
with its feet in the same manner; so that this action has almost
become the expression of a pleasurable sensation.


[16]"Dr. Darwin, `Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that
the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also noticed
(p. 151) in this work.

Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex movement,
as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are reflex actions;
for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk is placed
in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has been
removed.[17] It has recently been stated in France, that the action
of sucking is excited solely through the sense of smell, so that
if the olfactory nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks.
In like manner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only a few
hours after being hatched, of picking up small particles of food,
seems to be started into action through the sense of hearing;
for with chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer found
that "making a noise with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation
of the hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their meat."[18]


[17] Carpenter, `Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 1854, p. 690, and
Muller's `Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 936.

[18] Mowbray on `Poultry,' 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.

I will give only one other instance of an habitual and
purposeless movement. The Sheldrake (_Tadorna_) feeds on the sands
left uncovered by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered,
"it begins patting the ground with its feet, dancing as it were,
over the hole;" and this makes the worm come to the surface.
Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame Sheldrakes "came to ask
for food, they patted the ground in an impatient and rapid
manner."[19] This therefore may almost be considered as their
expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo
and the Kagu (_Rhinochetus jubatus_) when anxious to be fed,
beat the ground with their feet in the same odd manner.
So again Kingfishers, when they catch a fish, always beat
it until it is killed; and in the Zoological Gardens they
always beat the raw meat, with which they are sometimes fed,
before devouring it.


We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first Principle,
namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has led during
a long series of generations to some voluntary movement, then a tendency
to the performance of a similar movement will almost certainly be excited,
whenever the same, or any analogous or associated sensation &c., although
very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that the movement in this
case may not be of the least use. Such habitual movements are often,
or generally inherited; and they then differ but little from reflex actions.
When we treat of the special expressions of man, the latter part of our
first Principle, as given at the commencement of this chapter, will be
seen to hold good; namely, that when movements, associated through habit
with certain states of the mind, are partially repressed by the will,
the strictly involuntary muscles, as well as those which are least
under the separate control of the will, are liable still to act;
and their action is often highly expressive. Conversely, when the will
is temporarily or permanently weakened, the voluntary muscles fail
before the involuntary. It is a fact familiar to pathologists,
as Sir C. Bell remarks,[20] "that when debility arises from affection
of the brain, the influence is greatest on those muscles which are,
in their natural condition, most under the command of the will."
We shall, also, in our future chapters, consider another proposition
included in our first Principle; namely, that the checking of one habitual
movement sometimes requires other slight movements; these latter serving
as a means of expression.


[19] See the account given by this excellent observer in `Wild Sports
of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 142.


[20] `Philosophical Translations,' 1823, p. 182.



CHAPTER II.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_continued_.

The Principle of Antithesis--Instances in the dog and cat--
Origin of the principle--Conventional signs--The principle
of antithesis has not arisen from opposite actions being
consciously performed under opposite impulses.


WE will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain states
of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain
habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service;
and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is induced,
there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements
of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been of any service.
A few striking instances of antithesis will be given, when we treat of
the special expressions of man; but as, in these cases, we are particularly
liable to confound conventional or artificial gestures and expressions
with those which are innate or universal, and which alone deserve to rank
as true expressions, I will in the present chapter almost confine myself
to the lower animals.

When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame
of mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised,
or not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid;
the hairs bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears
are directed forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs.
5 and 7). These actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the dog's
intention to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent intelligible.
As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy, the canine
teeth are uncovered, and the ears are pressed close backwards on
the head; but with these latter actions, we are not here concerned.
Let us now suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the man
he is approaching, is not a stranger, but his master; and let it be
observed how completely and instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed.
Instead of walking upright, the body sinks downwards or even crouches,
and is thrown into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of being
held stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from side to side;
his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears are depressed and drawn
backwards, but not closely to the head; and his lips hang loosely.
From the drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated,
and the eyes no longer appear round and staring. It should be added
that the animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy;
and nerve-force will be generated in excess, which naturally leads
to action of some kind. Not one of the above movements, so clearly
expressive of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal.
They are explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete
opposition or antithesis to the attitude and movements which,
from intelligible causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight,
and which consequently are expressive of anger. I request the reader
to look at the four accompanying sketches, which have been given in order
to recall vividly the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind.
It is, however, not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog,
whilst caressing his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of

the expression lies in the continuous flexuous movements.

We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog,
it arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair,
opens its mouth and spits. But we are not here concerned with this
well-known attitude, expressive of terror combined with anger;
we are concerned only with that of rage or anger. This is not often seen,
but may be observed when two cats are fighting together; and I have
seen it well exhibited by a savage cat whilst plagued by a boy.
The attitude is almost exactly the same as that of a tiger disturbed and
growling over its food, which every one must have beheld in menageries.
The animal assumes a crouching position, with the body extended;
and the whole tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or curled from
side to side. The hair is not in the least erect. Thus far,
the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when the animal is
prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, it feels savage.
But when preparing to fight, there is this difference, that the ears
are closely pressed backwards; the mouth is partially opened,
showing the teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out with
protruded claws; and the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl.
(See figs. 9 and 10.) All, or almost all these actions naturally follow
(as hereafter to be explained), from the cat's manner and intention
of attacking its enemy.

Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind,
whilst feeling affectionate and caressing her master;
and mark how opposite is her attitude in every respect.
She now stands upright with her back slightly arched,
which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does not bristle;
her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side
to side, is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards;
her ears are erect and pointed; her mouth is closed;
and she rubs against her master with a purr instead of a growl.
Let it further be observed how widely different is the whole
bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog, when with
his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and wagging,
and ears depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast
in the attitudes and movements of these two carnivorous animals,
under the same pleased and affectionate frame of mind,
can be explained, as it appears to me, solely by their movements
standing in complete antithesis to those which are naturally assumed,
when these animals feel savage and are prepared either to fight
or to seize their prey.

In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe
that the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited;
for they are almost identically the same in the different races
of the species, and in all the individuals of the same race,
both young and old.

I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression.
I formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog,
was much pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure
by trotting gravely before me with high steps, head much raised,
moderately erected ears, and tail carried aloft but not stiffly.
Not far from my house a path branches off to the right, leading to
the hot-house, which I used often to visit for a few moments, to look
at my experimental plants. This was always a great disappointment
to the dog, as he did not know whether I should continue my walk;
and the instantaneous and complete change of expression which came
over him as soon as my body swerved in the least towards the path
(and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was laughable.
His look of dejection was known to every member of the family, and was
called his _hot-house face_. This consisted in the head drooping much,
the whole body sinking a little and remaining motionless; the ears
and tail falling suddenly down, but the tail was by no means wagged.
With the falling of the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes
became much changed in appearance, and I fancied that they looked
less bright. His aspect was that of piteous, hopeless dejection;
and it was, as I have said, laughable, as the cause was so slight.
Every detail in his attitude was in complete opposition to his former
joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be explained, as it appears
to me, in no other way, except through the principle of antithesis.
Had not the change been so instantaneous, I should have attributed
it to his lowered spirits affecting, as in the case of man,
the nervous system and circulation, and consequently the tone of his
whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part the cause.


We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression
has arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication
between the members of the same community,--and with other species,
between the opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,--
is of the highest importance to them. This is generally
effected by means of the voice, but it is certain that gestures
and expressions are to a certain extent mutually intelligible.
Man not only uses inarticulate cries, gestures, and expressions,
but has invented articulate language; if, indeed, the word INVENTED
can be applied to a process, completed by innumerable steps,
half-consciously made. Any one who has watched monkeys will not doubt
that they perfectly understand each other's gestures and expression,
and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts,[1] those of man.
An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of another,
often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair,
thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth,
or brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.

Copyright (c) 2007. fullstories.net. All rights reserved.