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The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals

C >> Charles Darwin >> The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals




(fig. 9), when feeling savage and not terrified.
She assumes a crouching attitude and occasionally protrudes
her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for striking.
The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to side.
The hair is not erected--at least it was not so in the few
cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards
and the teeth are shown. Low savage growls are uttered.
We can understand why the attitude assumed by a cat when preparing
to fight with another cat, or in any way greatly irritated,
is so widely different from that of a dog approaching another dog
with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her fore-feet for striking,
and this renders a crouching position convenient or necessary.
She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed
and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with
certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side.
This habit is common to many other animals--for instance,
to the puma, when prepared to spring;[1] but it is not
common to dogs, or to foxes, as I infer from Mr. St. John's
account of a fox lying in wait and seizing a hare.
We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various snakes,
when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails.
It would appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed
an uncontrollable desire for movement of some kind, owing to
nerve-force being freely liberated from the excited sensorium;
and that as the tail is left free, and as its movement does
not disturb the general position of the body, it is curled
or lashed about.

All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright,
with slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected;
and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress.
The desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind,
that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs
of chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing
affection probably originated through association, as in the case
of dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps
from the young themselves loving each other and playing together.
Another and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already
been described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even
old cats, when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with
separated toes, as if pushing against and sucking their mother's teats.
This habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something,
that both apparently are derived from actions performed during
the nursing period. Why cats should show affection by rubbing
so much more than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact
with their masters, and why cats only occasionally lick the hands
of their friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse
themselves by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs.
On the other hand, their tongues seem less well fitted for the work
than the longer and more flexible tongues of dogs.


[1] Azara, `Quadrupedes du Paraquay,' 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.

Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs
in a well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl.
The hair over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect.
In the instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright,
the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see fig.
15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one side.
The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two kittens
are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the other.
From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points of
expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back.
I am inclined to believe that, in the same manner as many birds,
whilst they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail,
to make themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their
full height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail,
and erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked,
is said to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers
in the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action
in the larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c.; and these have
little cause to be afraid of any other animal.

Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven
different sounds. The purr of satisfaction, which is made during
both inspiration and expiration, is one of the most curious.
The puma, cheetah, and ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased,
"emits a peculiar short snuffle, accompanied by the closure
of the eyelids."[7] It is said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard,
do not purr.


_Horses_.--Horses when savage draw their ears closely back,
protrude their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth,
ready for biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally,
through habit, draw back their ears; and their eyes are
turned backwards in a peculiar manner.[8] When pleased,
as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable,
they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears,
and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny.
Impatience is expressed by pawing the ground.


[7] `Land and Water,' 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the Puma,
in the work above quoted.

[8] Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 123. See also p.
126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with reference
to their distended nostrils.

The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive.
One day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine,
covered by a tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised
his head so high, that his neck became almost perpendicular;
and this he did from habit, for the machine lay on a slope below,
and could not have been seen with more distinctness through
the raising of the head; nor if any sound had proceeded
from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard.
His eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I
could feel through the saddle the palpitations of his heart.
With red dilated nostrils he snorted violently, and whirling round,
would have dashed off at full speed, had I not prevented him.
The distension of the nostrils is not for the sake of scenting
the source of danger, for when a horse smells carefully at any
object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his nostrils.
Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through
his nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with
great powers of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils,
as well as the snorting, and the palpitations of the heart,
are actions which have become firmly associated during a long
series of generations with the emotion of terror; for terror
has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion
in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.


_Ruminants_.--Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so slight
a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme pain.
A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which be
holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing.
He also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different
from that of an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up
clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated
by flies, for the sake of driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep
and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through
their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades.
The musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps
on the ground.[9] How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture;
for from inquiries which I have made it does not appear that any of
these animals fight with their fore-legs.

Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression
than do cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated,
they draw back their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair,
squeal, stamp on the ground, and brandish their horns.
One day in the Zoological Gardens, the Formosan deer
(_Cervus pseudaxis_) approached me in a curious attitude,
with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed
back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely.
From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage;
he approached slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars,
he did not lower his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards,
and struck his horns with great force against the railings.
Mr. Bartlett informs me that some other species of deer place
themselves in the same attitude when enraged.

_Monkeys_.--The various species and genera of monkeys express
their feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting,
as in some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races
of man should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we
shall see in the following chapters, the different races of man express
their emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout
the world. Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting
in another way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man.
As I have had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group
under all circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged
under different states of the mind.

[9] `Land and Water,' 1869, p. 152.

_Pleasure, joy, affection_--It is not possible to distinguish
in monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had,
the expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection.
Young chimpanzees make a kind of barking noise, when pleased
by the return of any one to whom they are attached.
When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh, is uttered,
the lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions.
Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased
the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed
when they were angered. If a young chimpanzee be tickled--
and the armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling, as in
the case of our children,--a more decided chuckling or laughing
sound is uttered; though the laughter is sometimes noiseless.
The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards; and this
sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled.
But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter,
is more plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in
the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter
their laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us.
But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin,[10]
who has particularly attended to their expression, states.


[10] `Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383, 410.

Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound;
and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their
laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces,
which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile.
I have also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee.
Dr. Duchenne--and I cannot quote a better authority--informs me
that he kept a very tame monkey in his house for a year;
and when he gave it during meal-times some choice delicacy,
he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly raised;
thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an
incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of main,
could be plainly perceived in this animal.

The _Cebus azarae_,[11] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
utters a peculiar tittering (_kichernden_) sound. It also expresses
agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth,
without producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter,
but it would be more appropriately called a smile. The form
of the mouth is different when either pain or terror is expressed,
and high shrieks are uttered. Another species of _Cebus_ in the
Zoological Gardens (_C. hypoleucus_) when pleased, makes a reiterated
shrill note, and likewise draws back the corners of its mouth,
apparently through the contraction of the same muscles as with us.
So does the Barbary ape (_Inuus ecaudatus_) to an extraordinary degree;
and I observed in this monkey that the skin of the lower eyelids then
became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw
or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being exposed; but the noise
produced was hardly more distinct than that which we sometimes call
silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this slight sound
was the animal's laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on this head
(being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or rather
threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same compartment.
Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed;
the mouth was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were more
fully exposed, and a hoarse barking noise was uttered.


[11] Rengger (`Sagetheire von Paraquay', 1830, s. 46) kept these monkeys
in confinement for seven years in their native country of Paraguay.

The Anubis baboon (_Cynocephalus anubis_) was first insulted
and put into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper,
who then made friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation
was effected the baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips,
and looked pleased. When we laugh heartily, a similar movement,
or quiver, may be observed more or less distinctly in our jaws;
but with man the muscles of the chest are more particularly acted on,
whilst with this baboon, and with some other monkeys, it is the muscles
of the jaws and lips which are spasmodically affected.

I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner
in which two or three species of Alacacus and the _Cynopithecus
niger_ draw back their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise,
when they are pleased by being caressed. With the Cynopithecus
(fig. 17), the corners of the mouth are at the same time
drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are exposed.
Hence this expression would never be recognized by a stranger as one
of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed,
and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards.
The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a
staring appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled;
but this wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent
transverse furrows on the face.

_Painful emotions and sensations_.--With monkeys the expression of
slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation, jealousy,
&c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger;
and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping.
A woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have
come from Borneo (_Macacus maurus_ or _M. inornatus_ of Gray), said
that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton,
have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied,
weeping so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks.
There is, however, something strange about this case, for two specimens
subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species,
have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed
by the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly screaming.
Rengger states[12] that the eyes of the _Cebus azarae_ fill
with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented
getting some much desired object, or is much frightened.
Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the _Callithrix sciureus_
"instantly fill with tears when it is seized with fear;"
but when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens
was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not occur.
I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy
of Humboldt's statement.

The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out
of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children.
This state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements,
fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.


[12] Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, `Personal Narrative, Eng. translat.
vol. iv. p. 527. {Illust. caption = FIG. 16.--_Cynopithecus niger_,
in a placid condition.

Drawn from life by Mr. Wolf. FIG. 17.--The same, when pleased
by being caressed.}

_Anger_.--This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys,
and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[13] in many different ways.
"Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and
savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about
to spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds.
Many display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts,
at the same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips,
so as to conceal the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on
the enemy, as if in savage defiance. Some again, and principally
the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany
their malicious grins with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry."
Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some species uncover
their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by the
protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears.
The _Cynopithecus niger_, lately referred to, acts in this manner,
at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its forehead,
and showing its teeth; so that the movements of the features from anger
are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the two expressions
can be distinguished only by those familiar with the animal.

Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies
in a very odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely
as in the act of yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons,
when first placed in the same compartment, sitting opposite
to each other and thus alternately opening their mouths;
and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn.
Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show to each
other that they are provided with a formidable set of teeth,
as is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the reality
of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put
him into a violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted.
Some species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus[14] behave
in the same manner. Baboons likewise show their anger, as was
observed by Brehin with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia,
in another manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand,
"like an angry man striking the table with his fist."
I have seen this movement with the baboons in the Zoological Gardens;
but sometimes the action seems rather to represent the searching
for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.


[13] Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.

Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the _Macacus rhesus_,
when much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me,
another monkey attacked a _rhesus_, and I saw its face redden as plainly
as that of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes,
after the battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint.
At the same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part
of the body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder;
but I cannot positively assert that this was the case.
When the Mandrill is in any way excited, the brilliantly coloured,
naked parts of the skin are said to become still more vividly coloured.

With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects
much over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs,
representing our eyebrows. These animals are always looking
about them, and in order to look upwards they raise their eyebrows.
They have thus, as it would appear, acquired the habit of frequently
moving their eyebrows. However this may be, many kinds of monkeys,
especially the baboons, when angered or in any way excited,
rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and down,
as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.[15] As we associate
in the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows
with definite states of the mind, the almost incessant movement
of the eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless expression.
I once observed a man who had a trick of continually raising
his eyebrows without any corresponding emotion, and this gave
to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some persons who keep
the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and upwards,
as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not
amused or pleased.


[14] Brehm, `Thierleben,' B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking
the ground, s. 61.

A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like _tish-shist_,
turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little
more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise.
A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious
resemblance to a child in the same state. She screamed loudly with widely
open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed.
She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head.
She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly,
and bit everything within reach. A young gibbon (_Hylobates syndactylus_)
in a passion has been described[16] as behaving in almost exactly
the same manner.

The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded,
sometimes to a wonderful degree, under various circumstances.
They act thus, not only when slightly angered, sulky,
or disappointed, but when alarmed at anything--in one instance,
at the sight of a turtle,[17]--and likewise when pleased.
But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of
the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases;
and the sounds which are then uttered are different.
The accompanying drawing represents a chimpanzee made sulky
by an orange having been offered him, and then taken away.
A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though to a much
slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.


[15] Brehm remarks (`Thierleben,' s. 68) that the eyebrows of the _Inuus
ecaudatus_ are frequently moved up and down when the animal is angered.

[16] G. Bennett, `Wanderings in New South Wales,' &c. vol.
ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky.
Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.

Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass
on the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known,
had never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images
with the most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view.
They then approached close and protruded their lips towards the image,
as if to kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done
towards each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room.
They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various
attitudes before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface;
they placed their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it;
and finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross,
and refused to look any longer.

When we try to perform some little action which is difficult
and requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle,
we generally close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume,
of not disturbing our movements by breathing; and I noticed
the same action in a young Orang. The poor little creature
was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to kill the flies
on the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult
as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were
firmly compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.


[17] W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.

Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs
and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether on
the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of monkeys.
This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable,
and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements
are thus rendered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their
eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled.
In comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing
to their not frowning under any emotion of the mind--that is, as far
as I have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point.
Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in man,
is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered
and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead.
Both the orang and chimpanzee are said[18] to possess this muscle,
but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner.
I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within,
allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out;
but although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown.
Nor was there any frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees
from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would
certainly have caused us to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes,
but only once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion,
I tickled the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled
up its face, slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows.
I have never seen a frown on the forehead of the orang.

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