Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War
F >>
Frederick A. Talbot >> Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War
Pages:
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
13 |
14 |
15 Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War
Frederick A. Talbot
PREFACE
Ever since the earliest days of the great conquest of the air,
first by the dirigible balloon and then by the aeroplane, their
use in time of war has been a fruitful theme for discussion. But
their arrival was of too recent a date, their many utilities too
unexplored to provide anything other than theories, many
obviously untenable, others avowedly problematical.
Yet the part airships have played in the Greatest War has come as
a surprise even to their most convinced advocates. For every
expectation shattered, they have shown a more than compensating
possibility of usefulness.
In this volume an endeavour has been made to record their
achievements, under the stern test of trial, as an axiom of war,
and to explain, in untechnical language, the many services to
which they have been and may be applied.
In the preparation of the work I have received assistance from
many sources--British, French, Russian and German--from official
reports and from men who have played a part in the War in the
Air. The information concerning German military aircraft has
been obtained from Government documents, most of which were
placed at my disposal before the outbreak of war.
The use of aircraft has changed the whole art and science of
warfare. With its disabilities well in hand, with its strength
but half revealed, the aerial service has revolutionised strategy
and shorn the unexpected attack of half its terrors. The Fourth
Arm is now an invaluable part of the complex military machine.
F. A. TALBOT.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I. The introduction of aircraft into military operations
II. The military uses of the captive balloon
III. Germany's rise to military airship supremacy
IV. Airships of war
V. Germany's aerial dreadnought fleet
VI. The military value of Germany's aerial fleet
VII. Aeroplanes of war
VIII. Scouting from the skies
IX. The airman and artillery
X. Bomb-throwing from air-craft
XI. Armoured aeroplanes
XII. Battles in the air
XIII. Tricks and ruses to baffle the airman
XIV. Anti-aircraft guns. Mobile weapons
XV. Anti-aircraft guns. Immobile weapons
XVI. Mining the air
XVII. Wireless in aviation
XVIII. Aircraft and naval operations
XIX. The navies of the air
CHAPTER I
THE INTRODUCTION OF AIRCRAFT INTO MILITARY OPERATIONS
It is a curious circumstance that an invention, which is hailed
as being one of the greatest achievements ever recorded in the
march of civilisation, should be devoted essentially to the
maiming of humanity and the destruction of property. In no
other trend of human endeavour is this factor so potently
demonstrated as in connection with Man's Conquest of the Air.
The dogged struggle against the blind forces of Nature was waged
tenaciously and perseveringly for centuries. But the measure of
success recorded from time to time was so disappointing as to
convey the impression, except in a limited circle, that the
problem was impossible of solution. In the meantime wondrous
changes had taken place in the methods of transportation by land
and sea. The steam and electric railway, steam propulsion of
vessels, and mechanical movement along the highroads had been
evolved and advanced to a high standard of perfection, to the
untold advantage of the community. Consequently it was argued,
if only a system of travel along the aerial highways could be
established, then all other methods of mechanical transportation
would be rendered, if not entirely obsolete, at least antiquated.
At last man triumphed over Nature--at least to such a degree as
to inspire the confidence of the world at large, and to bring
aerial travel and transportation within range of realisation.
But what has been the result? The discovery is not devoted to
the interests of peace and economic development, but to
extermination and destruction.
At the same time this development may be explained. The airship
and aeroplane in the present stage of evolution possess no
economic value. True, cross-country cruises by airship have been
inaugurated, and, up to a point, have proved popularly, if not
commercially, successful, while tentative efforts have been made
to utilise the aeroplane as a mail-carrier. Still, from the
view-point of the community at large aerial travel is as remote
as it was centuries ago.
It is somewhat interesting to observe how history is repeating
itself. When the Montgolfiers succeeded in lifting themselves
into the air by means of a vessel inflated with hot air, the new
vehicle was hailed not so much as one possessed of commercial
possibilities, but as an engine of war! When the indomitable
courage and perseverance of Count von Zeppelin in the face of
discouraging disasters and flagrant failures, at last commanded
the attention of the German Emperor, the latter regarded the
Zeppelin craft, not from the interests of peace, but as a
military weapon, and the whole of the subsequent efforts of the
Imperial admirer were devoted to the perfection of the airship in
this one direction.
Other nations, when they embarked on an identical line of
development, considered the airship from a similar point of view.
In fact, outside Germany, there was very little private
initiative in this field. Experiments and developments were
undertaken by the military or naval, and in some instances by
both branches, of the respective Powers. Consequently the aerial
craft, whether it be a dirigible airship, or an aeroplane, can
only be regarded from the military point of view.
Despite the achievements which have been recorded by human
endeavour in the field of aerial travel, the balloon per se has
by no means been superseded. It still remains an invaluable
adjunct to the fighting machine. In Great Britain its value in
this direction has never been ignored: of late, indeed, it has
rather been developed. The captive balloon is regarded as an
indispensable unit to both field and sea operations. This fact
was emphasised very strongly in connection with the British naval
attacks upon the German forces in Flanders, and it contributed to
the discomfiture of the German hordes in a very emphatic manner.
The captive balloon may be operated from any spot where
facilities exist for anchoring the paying out cable together with
winding facilities for the latter. Consequently, if exigencies
demand, it maybe operated from the deck of a warship so long as the
latter is stationary, or even from an automobile. It is of small
cubic capacity, inasmuch as it is only necessary for the bag to
contain sufficient gas to lift one or two men to a height of about
500 or 600 feet.
When used in the field the balloon is generally inflated at the
base, to be towed or carried forward by a squad of men while
floating in the air, perhaps at a height of 10 feet. A dozen men
will suffice for this duty as a rule, and in calm weather little
difficulty is encountered in moving from point to point. This
method possesses many advantages. The balloon can be inflated
with greater ease at the base, where it is immune from
interference by hostile fire. Moreover, the facilities for
obtaining the requisite inflating agent--hydrogen or coal gas--
are more convenient at such a point. If the base be far removed
from the spot at which it is desired to operate the balloon, the
latter is inflated at a convenient point nearer the requisite
position, advantage being taken of the protective covering
offered by a copse or other natural obstacle.
As is well known, balloons played an important part during the
siege of Paris in 1870-1, not only in connection with daring
attempts to communicate with the outer world, but in
reconnoitring the German positions around the beleaguered city.
But this was not the first military application of the aerial
vessel; it was used by the French against the Austrians in the
battle of Fleurus, and also during the American Civil War. These
operations, however, were of a sporadic character; they were not
part and parcel of an organised military section.
It is not generally known that the British War office virtually
pioneered the military use of balloons, and subsequently the
methods perfected in Britain became recognised as a kind of
"standard" and were adopted generally by the Powers with such
modifications as local exigencies seemed to demand.
The British military balloon department was inaugurated at
Chatham under Captain Templer in 1879. It was devoted
essentially to the employ ment of captive balloons in war, and in
1880 a company of the Royal Engineers was detailed to the care of
this work in the field. Six years previously the French military
department had adopted the captive balloon under Colonel
Laussedat, who was assisted among others by the well-known
Captain Renard. Germany was somewhat later in the field; the
military value of captive balloons was not appreciated and taken
into serious consideration here until 1884. But although British
efforts were preceded by the French the latter did not develop
the idea upon accepted military lines.
The British authorities were confronted with many searching
problems. One of the earliest and greatest difficulties
encountered was in connection with the gas for inflation. Coal
gas was not always readily available, so that hydrogen had to be
depended upon for the most part. But then another difficulty
arose. This was the manufacture of the requisite gas. Various
methods were tested, such as the electrolytic decomposition of
water, the decomposition of sulphuric acid by means of iron, the
reaction between slaked lime and zinc, and so forth.
But the drawbacks to every process, especially upon the field of
battle, when operations have to be conducted under extreme
difficulties and at high pressure, were speedily recognised.
While other nations concentrated their energies upon the
simplification of hydrogen-manufacturing apparatus for use upon
the battle-field, Great Britain abandoned all such processes in
toto. Our military organisation preferred to carry out the
production of the necessary gas at a convenient manufacturing
centre and to transport it, stored in steel cylinders under
pressure, to the actual scene of operations. The method proved a
great success, and in this way it was found possible to inflate a
military balloon in the short space of 20 minutes, whereas, under
the conditions of making gas upon the spot, a period of four
hours or more was necessary, owing to the fact that the
manufacturing process is relatively slow and intricate. The
practicability of the British idea and its perfection served to
establish the captive balloon as a military unit.
The British military ballooning department has always ranked as
the foremost of its type among the Powers, although its work has
been carried out so unostentatiously that the outside world has
gleaned very little information concerning its operations.
Captain Templer was an indefatigable worker and he brought the
ballooning section to a high degree of efficiency from the
military point of view.
But the British Government was peculiarly favoured, if such a
term may be used. Our little wars in various parts of the world
contributed valuable information and experience which was fully
turned to account. Captive balloons for reconnoitring purposes
were used by the British army for the first time at Suakim in
1885, and the section established its value very convincingly.
The French military balloon department gained its first
experience in this field in the previous year, a balloon
detachment having been dispatched to Tonkin in 1884. In both the
Tonkin and Soudan campaigns, invaluable work was accomplished by
the balloon sections, with the result that this aerial vehicle
has come to be regarded as an indispensable military adjunct.
Indeed the activity of the German military ballooning section was
directly attributable to the Anglo-French achievements therewith.
In this work, however, the British force speedily displayed its
superiority and initiative. The use of compressed hydrogen was
adopted, and within the course of a few years the other Powers,
realising the advantages which the British department had thus
obtained, decided to follow its example. The gas is stored in
cylinders under a pressure varying from six to ten or more
atmospheres; in other words from about 80 to 140 or more pounds
per square inch. Special military wagons have been designed for
the transport of these cylinders, and they are attached to the
balloon train.
The balloon itself is light, and made of such materials as to
reduce the weight thereof to the minimum. The British balloons
are probably the smallest used by any of the Powers, but at the
same time they are the most expensive. They are made of
goldbeater's skin, and range in capacity from 7,000 to 10,000
cubic feet, the majority being of the former capacity. The
French balloon on the other hand has a capacity exceeding 18,000
cubic feet, although a smaller vessel of 9,000 cubic feet
capacity, known as an auxiliary, and carrying a single observer,
is used.
The Germans, on the other hand, with their Teutonic love of the
immense, favour far larger vessels. At the same time the
military balloon section of the German Army eclipses that of any
other nations is attached to the Intelligence Department, and is
under the direct control of the General Staff. Balloon stations
are dotted all over thecountry, including Heligoland and Kiel,
while regular sections are attached to the Navy for operating
captive balloons from warships. Although the Zeppelin and
aeroplane forces have come to the front in Germany, and have
relegated the captive balloon somewhat to the limbo of things
that were, the latter section has never been disbanded; in fact,
during the present campaign it has undergone a somewhat spirited
revival.
The South African campaign emphasised the value of the British
balloon section of the Army, and revealed services to which it
was specially adapted, but which had previously more or less been
ignored. The British Army possessed indifferent maps of the
Orange Free State and the Transvaal. This lamentable deficiency
was remedied in great measure by recourse to topographical
photographs taken from the captive balloons. The guides thus
obtained were found to be of extreme value.
During the early stages of the war the hydrogen was shipped in
cylinders from the homeland, but subsequently a manufacturing
plant of such capacity as to meet all requirements was
established in South Africa. The cylinders were charged at
this point and dispatched to the scene of action, so that it
became unnecessary to transport the commodity from Britain. The
captive balloon revealed the impregnability of Spion Kop, enabled
Lord Roberts to ascertain the position of the Boer guns at the
Battle of Paardeburg, and proved of invaluable assistance to the
forces of General White during the siege of Ladysmith.
CHAPTER II
THE MILITARY USES of THE CAPTIVE BALLOON
Although the captive balloon is recognised as indispensable in
military operations, its uses are somewhat limited. It can be
employed only in comparatively still weather. The reason is
obvious. It is essential that the balloon should assume a
vertical line in relation to its winding plant upon the ground
beneath, so that it may attain the maximum elevation possible: in
other words, the balloon should be directly above the station
below, so that if 100 yards of cable are paid out the aerostat
may be 100 yards above the ground. If a wind is blowing, the
helpless craft is certain to be caught thereby and driven
forwards or backwards, so that it assumes an angle to its
station. If this become acute the vessel will be tilted,
rendering the position of the observers somewhat precarious, and
at the same time observing efficiency will be impaired.
This point may be appreciated more easily by reference to the
accompanying diagram. A represents the ground station and B
the position of the captive balloon when sent aloft in calm
weather, 300 feet of cable being paid out. A wind arises and
blows the vessel forward to the position C. At this point the
height of the craft in relation to the ground has been reduced,
and the reduction must increase proportionately as the strength
of the wind increases and forces the balloon still more towards
the ground. At the same time, owing to the tilt given to the
car, observation is rendered more difficult and eventually
becomes extremely dangerous.
A wind, if of appreciable strength, develops another and graver
danger. Greater strain will be imposed upon the cable, while if
the wind be gusty, there is the risk that the vessel will be torn
away from its anchoring rope and possibly lost. Thus it will be
seen that the effective utilisation of a captive balloon is
completely governed by meteorological conditions, and often it is
impossible to use it in weather which exercises but little
influence upon dirigibles or aeroplanes.
The captive balloon equipment comprises the balloon, together
with the observer's basket, the wire-cable whereby it is anchored
and controlled, and the winding apparatus. Formerly a steam
engine was necessary for the paying in and out of the cable, but
nowadays this is accomplished by means of a petrol-driven motor,
an oil-engine, or even by the engine of an automobile. The
length of cable varies according to the capacity of the balloon
and the maximum operating height.
The average British balloon is able to lift about 290 or 300
pounds, which may be taken to represent the weight of two
observers. On the other hand, the French and German balloons are
able to carry four times this weight, with the exception of the
French auxiliaries, which are designed to lift one observer only.
The balloons of the two latter Powers have also a greater maximum
altitude; it is possible to ascend to a height of some 2,000 feet
in one of these.
The observing station is connected with the winding crew below
either by a telephone, or some other signalling system, the
method practised varying according to circumstances. In turn the
winding station is connected with the officer in charge of the
artillery, the fire of which the captive balloon is directing.
The balloon observer is generally equipped with various
instruments, such as telescope, photographic cameras, and so
forth, so as to be able, if necessary, to prepare a topographical
survey of the country below. By this means the absence of
reliable maps may be remedied, or if not regarded, as
sufficiently correct they may be checked and counter-checked by
the data gained aloft.
Seeing that the gas has to be transported in cylinders, which are
weighty, it is incumbent that the waste of this commodity should
be reduced to the minimum. The balloon cannot be deflated at
night and re-inflated in the morning--it must be maintained in
the inflated condition the whole time it is required for
operation.
There are various methods of consummating this end. One method
is to haul in the balloon and to peg it down on all sides,
completing the anchorage by the attachment of bags filled with
earth to the network. While this process is satisfactory in calm
weather, it is impracticable in heavy winds, which are likely to
spring up suddenly. Consequently a second method is practised.
This is to dig a pit into the ground of sufficient size to
receive the balloon. When the latter is hauled in it is lowered
into this pit and there pegged down and anchored. Thus it is
perfectly safe during the roughest weather, as none of its bulk
is exposed above the ground level. Furthermore it is not a
conspicuous object for the concentration of hostile fire.
In some instances, and where the military department is possessed
of an elaborate equipment such as characterises the German army,
when reconnaissance is completed and the balloon is to be removed
to another point, the gas is pumped back into the cylinders for
further use. Such an economical proceeding is pretty and well
adapted to manoeuvres, but it is scarcely feasible in actual
warfare, for the simple reason that the pumping takes time.
Consequently the general procedure, when the balloon has
completed its work, is to permit the gas to escape into the air
in the usual manner, and to draw a fresh supply of gas from
further cylinders when the occasion arises for re-inflation.
Although the familiar spherical balloon has proved perfectly
adequate for reconnoitring in the British and French armies, the
German authorities maintained that it was not satisfactory in
anything but calm weather. Accordingly scientific initiative was
stimulated with a view to the evolution of a superior vessel.
These endeavours culminated in the Parseval-Siegsfeld captive
balloon, which has a quaint appearance. It has the form of a
bulky cylinder with hemispherical extremities. At one end of the
balloon there is a surrounding outer bag, reminiscent of a
cancerous growth. The lower end of this is open. This
attachment serves the purpose of a ballonet. The wind blowing
against the opening, which faces it, charges the ballonet with
air. This action, it is claimed, serves to steady the main
vessel, somewhat in the manner of the tail of a kite, thereby
enabling observations to be made as easily and correctly in rough
as in calm weather. The appearance of the balloon while aloft is
certainly curious. It appears to be rearing up on end, as if the
extremity saddled with the ballonet were weighted.
British and French captive balloon authorities are disposed to
discount the steadying effect of this attachment, and, indeed, to
maintain that it is a distinct disadvantage. It may hold the
vessel steadier for the purpose of observation, but at the same
time it renders the balloon a steadier target for hostile fire.
On the other hand, the swaying of a spherical balloon with the
wind materially contributes to its safety. A moving object,
particularly when its oscillations are irregular and
incalculable, is an extremely difficult object at which to take
effective aim.
Seeing that even a small captive balloon is of appreciable
dimensions--from 25 to 33 feet or more in diameter--one might
consider it an easy object to hit. But experience has proved
otherwise. In the first place the colour of the balloon is
distinctly protective. The golden or yellowish tinge harmonises
well with the daylight, even in gloomy weather, while at
night-time it blends excellently with the moonlight. For
effective observations a high altitude is undesirable. At a
height of 600 feet the horizon is about 28 miles from the
observer, as compared with the 3 miles constituting the range of
vision from the ground over perfectly flat country. Thus it will
be seen that the "spotter" up aloft has the command of a
considerable tract.
Various ways and means of finding the range of a captive balloon
have been prepared, and tables innumerable are available for
committal to memory, while those weapons especially designed for
aerial targets are fitted with excellent range-finders and other
instruments. The Germans, with characteristic thoroughness, have
devoted considerable attention to this subject, but from the
results which they have achieved up to the present this guiding
knowledge appears to be more spectacular and impressive than
effective.
To put a captive balloon out of action one must either riddle the
envelope, causing it to leak like a sieve, blow the vessel to
pieces, or ignite the highly inflammable gas with which it is
inflated. Individual rifle fire will inflict no tangible damage.
A bullet, if it finds its billet, will merely pass through the
envelope and leave two small punctures. True, these vents will
allow the gas to escape, but this action will proceed so slowly
as to permit the vessel to remain aloft long enough to enable the
observer to complete his work. A lucky rifle volley, or the
stream of bullets from a machine gun may riddle the envelope,
precipitating a hurried descent, owing to the greater number of
perforations through which the gas is able to escape, but as a
rule the observer will be able to land safely.
Consequently the general practice is to shatter the aerostat, and
to this end either shrapnel, high explosive, or incendiary shells
will be used. The former must explode quite close to the balloon
in order to achieve the desired end, while the incendiary shell
must actually strike it, so as to fire the gas. The high
explosive shell may explode effectually some feet away from the
vessel, inasmuch as in this instance dependence is placed upon
the terrific concussion produced by the explosion which, acting
upon the fragile fabric of the balloon, brings about a complete
collapse of the envelope. If a shrapnel is well placed and
explodes immediately above the balloon, the envelope will be torn
to shreds and a violent explosion of the gas will be precipitated.
But as a matter of fact, it is extremely difficult to place a
shrapnel shell so as to consummate this end. The range is not
picked up easily, while the timing of the fuse to bring about the
explosion of the shell at the critical moment is invariably a
complex problem.
Pages:
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
13 |
14 |
15