Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

F >> Frederick A. Talbot >> Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

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One favourite method of finding the range of a balloon is shown
in the accompanying diagrams. The artillery battery is at B
and the captive balloon, C, is anchored at A. On either
side of B and at a specified distance, observers O1 and O2
respectively are stationed. First a shell is fired at "long"
range, possibly the maximum range of the gun. It bursts at D.
As it has burst immediately in the line of sight of B, but with
the smoke obscured by the figure of the balloon C, it is obvious
to B that the explosion has occurred behind the objective, but at
what distance he cannot tell. To O1 and O2,however, it is seen
to have burst at a considerable distance behind C though to the
former it appears to have burst to the left and to the second
observer to the right of the target.

Another shell, at "short" range, is now fired, and it bursts at
E. The explosion takes place in the line of sight of B, who
knows that he has fired short of the balloon because the latter
is eclipsed by the smoke. But the two observers see that it is
very short, and here again the explosion appears to O1 to have
occurred to the right of the target, while to O2 it has evidently
burst to the left of the aerostat, as revealed by the relation of
the position of the balloon to the bursting of the shell shown in
Fig. 3.

A third round is fired, and the shell explodes at F. In this
instance the explosion takes place below the balloon. Both the
observers and the artillery man concur in their deductions upon
the point at which the shell burst. But the shell must explode
above the balloon, and accordingly a fourth round is discharged
and the shell bursts at G.

This appears to be above the balloon, inasmuch as the lines of
sight of the two observers and B converge at this point. But
whether the explosion occurs immediately above the vessel as is
desired, it is impossible to say definitely, because it may
explode too far behind to be effective. Consequently, if this
shell should prove abortive, the practice is to decrease the
range gradually with each succeeding round until the explosion
occurs at the critical point, when, of course, the balloon is
destroyed. An interesting idea of the difficulty of picking up
the range of a captive balloon may be gathered from the fact that
some ten minutes are required to complete the operation.

But success is due more to luck than judgment. In the foregoing
explanation it is premised that the aerial vessel remains
stationary, which is an ex tremely unlikely contingency. While
those upon the ground are striving to pick up the range, the
observer is equally active in his efforts to baffle his
opponents. The observer follows each successive, round with keen
interest, and when the shells appear to be bursting at
uncomfortably close quarters naturally he intimates to his
colleagues below that he desires his position to be changed,
either by ascending to a higher point or descending. In fact, he
may be content to come to the ground. Nor must the fact be
overlooked that while the enemy is trying to place the observer
hors de combat, he is revealing the position of his artillery,
and the observer is equally industrious in picking up the range
of the hostile guns for the benefit of his friends below.

When the captive balloon is aloft in a wind the chances of the
enemy picking up the range thereof are extremely slender, as it
is continually swinging to and fro. While there is always the
possibility of a shell bursting at such a lucky moment as to
demolish the aerial target, it is generally conceded to be
impossible to induce a shell to burst within 100 yards of a
balloon, no matter how skilfully the hostile battery may be
operated.

The value of the captive balloon has been demonstrated very
strikingly throughout the attack upon the entrenched German
positions in Flanders. Owing to the undulating character of the
dunes the "spotters" upon the British monitors and battle ships
are unable to obtain a sweeping view of the country. Accordingly
captive balloons are sent aloft in some cases from the deck of
the monitors, and in others from a suitable point upon the beach
itself. The aerial observer from his point of vantage is able to
pick up the positions of the German forces and artillery with
ease and to communicate the data thus gained to the British
vessels, although subjected to heavy and continuous hostile fire.
The difficulty of hitting a captive balloon has been graphically
emphasised, inasmuch as the German artillerists have failed to
bring down a solitary balloon. On the other hand the observer in
the air is able to signal the results of each salvo fired from
the British battleships as they manoeuvre at full speed up and
down the coastline, while he keeps the fire of the monitors
concentrated upon the German positions until the latter have been
rendered untenable or demolished. The accuracy of the British
gun-fire has astonished even the Germans, but it has been
directly attributable to the rangefinder perched in the car of
the captive balloon and his rapid transmission of information to
the vessels below.

The enthusiastic supporters of aerial navigation maintained that
the dirigible and the aeroplane would supersede the captive
balloon completely. But as a matter of fact the present conflict
has established the value of this factor more firmly than ever.
There is not the slightest possibility that the captive balloon
sections of the belligerents will be disbanded, especially those
which have the fruits of experience to guide them. The airship
and the aeroplane have accomplished wonders, but despite their
achievements the captive balloon has fully substantiated its
value as a military unit in its particular field of operations.

CHAPTER III
GERMANY'S RISE TO MILITARY AIRSHIP SUPREMACY

Two incidents in the history of aviation stand out with
exceptional prominence. The one is the evolution of the Zeppelin
airship--a story teeming with romance and affording striking and
illuminating glimpses of dogged perseverance, grim determination
in the face of repeated disasters, and the blind courageous faith
of the inventor in the creation of his own brain. The second is
the remarkable growth of Germany's military airship organisation,
which has been so rapid and complete as to enable her to assume
supremacy in this field, and that within the short span of a
single decade.

The Zeppelin has always aroused the world's attention, although
this interest has fluctuated. Regarded at first as a wonderful
achievement of genius, afterwards as a freak, then as the ready
butt for universal ridicule, and finally with awe, if not with
absolute terror--such in brief is the history of this craft of
the air.

Count von Zeppelin can scarcely be regarded as an ordinary man.
He took up the subject of flight at an age which the majority of
individuals regard as the opportune moment for retirement from
activity, and, knowing nothing about mechanical engineering, he
concentrated his energies upon the study of this science to
enable him to master the difficulties of a mechanical character
incidental to the realisation of his grand idea. His energy and
indomitable perseverance are equalled by his ardent patriotism,
because, although the Fatherland discounted his idea when other
Powers were ready to consider it, and indeed made him tempting
offers for the acquisition of his handiwork, he stoutly declined
all such solicitations, declaring that his invention, if such it
may be termed, was for his own country and none other.

Count von Zeppelin developed his line of study and thought for
one reason only. As an old campaigner and a student of military
affairs he realised the shortcomings of the existing methods of
scouting and reconnoitring. He appreciated more than any other
man of the day perhaps, that if the commander-in-chief of an army
were provided with facilities for gazing down upon the scene of
operations, and were able to take advantage of all the
information accruing to the man above who sees all, he would
hold a superior position, and be able to dispose his forces and
to arrange his plan of campaign to the most decisive advantage.
In other words, Zeppelin conceived and developed his airship for
one field of application and that alone-military operations.
Although it has achieved certain successes in other directions
these have been subsidiary to the primary intention, and have
merely served to emphasise its military value.

Von Zeppelin was handicapped in his line of thought and
investigation from the very first. He dreamed big things upon a
big scale. The colossal always makes a peculiar and irresistible
appeal to the Teutonic nature. So he contemplated the perfection
of a big dirigible, eclipsing in every respect anything ever
attempted or likely to be attempted by rival countries.
Unfortunately, the realisation of the "colossal" entails an
equally colossal financial reserve, and the creator of this form
of airship for years suffered from financial cramp in its worst
manifestation. Probably it was to the benefit of the world at
large that Fortune played him such sorry tricks. It retarded the
growth of German ambitions in one direction very effectively.

As is well known Zeppelin evolved what may be termed an
individual line of thought in connection with his airship
activities. He adopted what is known as the indeformable
airship: that is to say the rigid, as opposed to the semi-rigid
and flexible craft. As a result of patient experiment and
continued researches he came to the conclusion that a huge outer
envelope taking the form of a polygonal cylinder with
hemispherical ends, constructed upon substantial lines with a
metallic skeleton encased within an impermeable skin, and charged
with a number of smaller balloon-shaped vessels containing the
lifting agent--hydrogen gas--would fulfil his requirements to the
greatest advantage. Model after model was built upon these
lines. Each was subjected to searching tests with the invariable
result attending such work with models. Some fulfilled the
expectations of the inventor, others resolutely declined to
illustrate his reasonings in any direction.

The inevitable happened. When a promising model was completed
finally the inventor learned to his sorrow what every inventor
realises in time. His fortune and the resources of others had
been poured down the sink of experiment. To carry the idea from
the model to the practical stage required more money, and it was
not forthcoming. The inventor sought to enlist the practical
sympathy of his country, only to learn that in Germany, as in
other lands, the axiom concerning the prophet, honour, and
country prevails. No exuberant inventor received such a cold
douche from a Government as did Count Zeppelin from the Prussian
authorities. For two years further work was brought practically
to a standstill: nothing could be done unless the sinews of war
were forthcoming. His friends, who had assisted him financially
with his models, now concluded that their aid had been misplaced.

The inventor, though disappointed, was by no means cast down. He
clung tenaciously to his pet scheme and to such effect that in
1896 a German Engineering Society advanced him some funds to
continue his researches. This support sufficed to keep things
going for another two years, during which time a full-sized
vessel was built. The grand idea began to crystallise rapidly,
with the result that when a public company was formed in 1898,
sufficient funds were rendered available to enable the first
craft to be constructed. It aroused considerable attention, as
well it might, seeing that it eclipsed anything which had
previously been attempted in connection with dirigibles. It was
no less than 420 feet in length, by 38 feet in diameter, and was
fitted with two cars, each of which carried a sixteen horse-power
motor driving independent propellers rigidly attached to the body
of the vessel. The propellers were both vertical and horizontal,
for the purpose of driving the ship in the two planes--vertical
and horizontal respectively.

The vessel was of great scientific interest, owing to the
ingenuity of its design and construction. The metallic skeleton
was built up from aluminium and over this was stretched the
fabric of the envelope, care being observed to reduce skin
friction, as well as to achieve impermeability. But it was the
internal arrangement of the gas-lifting balloons which provoked
the greatest concern. The hull was divided into compartments,
each complete in itself, and each containing a small balloon
inflated with hydrogen. It was sub-division as practised in
connection with vessels ploughing the water applied to aerial
craft, the purpose being somewhat the same. As a ship of the
seas will keep afloat so long as a certain number of its
subdivisions remain watertight, so would the Zeppelin keep aloft
if a certain number of the gas compartments retained their
charges of hydrogen. There were no fewer than seventeen of these
gas-balloons arranged in a single line within the envelope.
Beneath the hull and extending the full length of the latter was
a passage which not only served as a corridor for communication
between the cars, but also to receive a weight attached to a
cable worked by a winch. By the movement of this weight the bow
or stem of the vessel could be tilted to assist ascent and
descent.

The construction of the vessel subsequently proved to be the
easiest and most straightforward part of the whole undertaking.
There were other and more serious problems to be solved. How
would such a monster craft come to earth? How could she be
manipulated upon the ground? How could she be docked? Upon
these three points previous experience was silent. One German
inventor who likewise had dreamed big things, and had carried
them into execution, paid for his temerity and ambitions with his
life, while his craft was reduced to a mass of twisted and torn
metal. Under these circumstances Count Zeppelin decided to carry
out his flights over the waters of the Bodensee and to house his
craft within a floating dock. In this manner two uncertain
factors might be effectively subjugated.

Another problem had been ingeniously overcome. The outer
envelope presented an immense surface to the atmosphere, while
temperature was certain to play an uncertain part in the
behaviour of the craft. The question was to reduce to the
minimum the radiation of heat and cold to the bags containing the
gas. This end was achieved by leaving a slight air space between
the inflated gas balloons and the inner surface of the hull.

The first ascent was made on July 2nd, 1900, but was
disappointing, several breakdowns of the mechanism occurring
while the vessel was in mid-air, which rendered it unmanageable,
although a short flight was made which sufficed to show that an
independent speed of 13 feet per second could be attained. The
vessel descended and was made fast in her dock, the descent being
effected safely, while manoeuvring into dock was successful. At
least three points about which the inventor had been in doubt
appeared to be solved--his airship could be driven through the air
and could be steered; it could be brought to earth safely; and it
could be docked.

The repairs to the mechanism were carried out and on October 17th
and 21st of the same year further flights were made. By this
time certain influential Teuton aeronautical experts who had
previously ridiculed Zeppelin's idea had made a perfect
volte-face. They became staunch admirers of the system, while
other meteorological savants participated in the trials for the
express purpose of ascertaining just what the ship could do. As
a result of elaborate trigonometrical calculations it was
ascertained that the airship attained an independent speed
of 30 feet per second, which exceeded anything previously
achieved. The craft proved to be perfectly manageable in the
air, and answered her helm, thus complying with the terms of
dirigibility. The creator was flushed with his triumph, but at
the same time was doomed to experience misfortune. In its
descent the airship came to "earth" with such a shock that it was
extensively damaged. The cost of repairing the vessel was so
heavy that the company declined to shoulder the liability, and as
the Count was unable to defray the expense the wreck was
abandoned.

Although a certain meed of success had been achieved the outlook
seemed very black for the inventor. No one had any faith in his
idea. He made imploring appeals for further money, embarked upon
lecturing campaigns, wrote aviation articles for the Press, and
canvassed possible supporters in the effort to raise funds for
his next enterprise. Two years passed, but the fruits of the
propaganda were meagre. It was at this juncture, when everything
appeared to be impossible, that Count Zeppelin discovered his
greatest friend. The German Emperor, with an eye ever fixed upon
new developments, had followed Zeppelin's uphill struggle, and at
last, in 1902, came to his aid by writing a letter which ran:--

"Since your varied flights have been reported to me it is a great
pleasure to me to express my acknowledgment of your patience and
your labours, and the endurance with which you have pressed on
through manifold hindrances till success was near. The
advantages of your system have given your ship the greatest
attainable speed and dirigibility, and the important results you
have obtained have produced an epoch-making step forward in the
construction of airships and leave laid down a valuable basis for
future experiments."

This Imperial appreciation of what had been accomplished proved
to be the turning point in the inventor's fortunes. It
stimulated financial support, and the second airship was taken in
hand. But misfortune still pursued him. Accidents were of
almost daily occurrence. Defects were revealed here and
weaknesses somewhere else. So soon as one trouble was overcome
another made itself manifest. The result was that the whole of
the money collected by his hard work was expended before the ship
could take to the air. A further crash and blasting of cherished
hopes appeared imminent, but at this moment another Royal
personage came to the inventor's aid.

The King of Wurtemberg took a personal interest in his subject's
uphill struggle, and the Wurtemberg Government granted him the
proceeds of a lottery. With this money, and with what he
succeeded in raising by hook and by crook, and by mortgaging
his remaining property, a round L20,000 was obtained. With this
capital a third ship was taken in hand, and in 1905 it was
launched. It was a distinct improvement upon its predecessors.
The airship was 414 feet in length by 38 feet in diameter, was
equipped with 17 gas balloons having an aggregate capacity of
367,000 cubic feet of hydrogen, was equipped with two 85
horse-power motors driving four propellers, and displaced 9 tons.
All the imperfections incidental to the previous craft had been
eliminated, while the ship followed improved lines in its
mechanical and structural details.

The trials with this vessel commenced on November 30th, 1905, but
ill-luck had not been eluded. The airship was moored upon a raft
which was to be towed out into the lake to enable the dirigible
to ascend. But something went wrong with the arrangements. A
strong wind caught the ungainly airship, she dipped her nose into
the water, and as the motor was set going she was driven deeper
into the lake, the vessel only being saved by hurried deflation.

Six weeks were occupied in repairs, but another ascent was made
on January 17th, 1906. The trials were fairly satisfactory, but
inconclusive. One of the motors went wrong, and the longitudinal
stability was found to be indifferent. The vessel was brought
down, and was to be anchored, but the Fates ruled otherwise. A
strong wind caught her during the night and she was speedily
reduced to indistinguishable scrap.

Despite catastrophe the inventor wrestled gamely with his
project. The lessons taught by one disaster were taken to heart,
and arrangements to prevent the recurrence thereof incorporated
in the succeeding craft. Unfortunately, however, as soon as
one defect was remedied another asserted itself. It was this
persistent revelation of the unexpected which caused another
period of indifference towards his invention. Probably nothing
more would have been heard of the Zeppelin after this last
accident had it not been for the intervention of the Prussian
Government at the direct instigation of the Kaiser, who had now
taken Count Zeppelin under his wing. A State lottery was
inaugurated, the proceeds of which were handed over to the
indefatigable inventor, together with an assurance that if he
could keep aloft 24 hours without coming to earth in the
meantime, and could cover 450 miles within this period, the
Government would repay the whole of the money he had lavished
upon his idea, and liquidate all the debts he had incurred
in connection therewith.

Another craft was built, larger than its predecessors, and
equipped with two motors developing 170 horse-power. Upon
completion it was submitted to several preliminary flights, which
were so eminently successful that the inventor decided to make a
trial trip under conditions closely analogous to those imposed
for the Government test. On June 20th, 1908, at 8:26 a.m. the
craft ascended and remained aloft for 12 hours, during which time
it made an encouraging circular tour. Flushed with this success,
the Count considered that the official award was within reach,
and that all his previous disasters and misfortunes were on the
eve of redemption.

The crucial test was essayed on August 5th, 1908. Accompanied by
twelve observers the vessel ascended and travelled without
incident for eight hours. Then a slight mishap demanded
attention, but was speedily repaired, and was ignored officially
as being too trivial to influence the main issue. Victory
appeared within measurable distance: the arduous toil of many
patient years was about to be rewarded. The airship was within
sight of home when it had to descend owing to the development of
another motor fault. But as it approached the ground, Nature, as
if infuriated at the conquest, rose up in rebellion. A sudden
squall struck the unwieldy monster. Within a few moments it
became unmanageable, and through some inscrutable cause, it
caught fire, with the result that within a few moments it was
reduced to a tangled mass of metallic framework.

It was a catastrophe that would have completely vanquished many
an inventor, but the Count was saved the gall of defeat. His
flight, which was remarkable, inasmuch as he had covered 380
miles within 24 hours, including two unavoidable descents, struck
the Teuton imagination. The seeds so carefully planted by the
"Most High of Prussia" now bore fruit. The German nation
sympathised with the indomitable inventor, appreciated his
genius, and promptly poured forth a stream of subscriptions to
enable him to build another vessel. The intimation that other
Powers had approached the Count for the acquisition of his idea
became known far and wide, together with the circumstance that
he had unequivocally refused all offers. He was striving for the
Fatherland, and his unselfish patriotism appealed to one and all.
Such an attitude deserved hearty national appreciation, and the
members of the great German public emptied their pockets to such
a degree that within a few weeks a sum of L300,000 or $1,500,000
was voluntarily subscribed.

All financial embarrassments and distresses were now completely
removed from the Count's mind. He could forge ahead untrammelled
by anxiety and worry. Another Zeppelin was built and it created
a world's record. It remained aloft for 38 hours, during which
time it covered 690 miles, and, although it came to grief upon
alighting, by colliding with a tree, the final incident passed
unnoticed. Germany was in advance of the world. It had an
airship which could go anywhere, irrespective of climatic
conditions, and in true Teuton perspective the craft was viewed
from the military standpoint. Here was a means of obtaining the
mastery of the air: a formidable engine of invasion and aerial
attack had been perfected. Consequently the Grand Idea must be
supported with unbounded enthusiasm. The Count was hailed by his
august master as "The greatest German of the twentieth century,"
and in this appreciation the populace wholeheartedly concurred.
Whether such a panegyric from such an auspicious quarter is praise
indeed or the equivalent of complete condemnation, history alone
will be able to judge, but when one reflects, at this moment, upon
the achievements of this aircraft during the present conflagration,
the unprejudiced will be rather inclined to hazard the opinion
that Imperial Teuton praise is a synonym for damnation.

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