Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

F >> Frederick A. Talbot >> Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

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This cable emerges from the envelope only at the point or points
where the car or cars is or are placed. In the British airship
of this type there is only one car, but the larger French vessels
are equipped with two cars placed tandem-wise. The vertical
cable, after extending downwards a certain distance, is divided,
one rope being attached to one, and the second to the other side
of the car. The two-bladed propellers are disposed on either
side of the car, in each of which a 500 horse-power motor is
placed.

The Astra-Torres type of dirigible may be said to represent the
latest expression in airship design and construction. The
invention has given complete satisfaction, and has proved
strikingly successful. The French Government has completed
arrangements for the acquisition of larger and more powerful
vessels of this design, being now in the position to contest
every step that is made by Germany in this field. The type has
also been embraced by the Russian military authorities. The
Astra-Torres airship has a rakish appearance, and although the
lines of the gas-bag are admitted to increase frictional
resistance, this is regarded as a minor defect, especially when
the many advantages of the invention are taken into
consideration.

CHAPTER V
GERMANY'S AERIAL DREADNOUGHT FLEET

Although Germany, as compared with France, was relatively slow to
recognise the immense possibilities of aircraft, particularly
dirigibles, in the military sense, once the Zeppelin had received
the well-wishes of the Emperor William, Teuton activities were so
pronounced as to enable the leeway to be made up within a very
short while. While the Zeppelin commanded the greatest attention
owing to the interesting co-operation of the German Emperor, the
other types met with official and royal recognition and
encouragement as already mentioned. France, which had held premier
position in regard to the aerial fleet of dirigibles for so long,
was completely out-classed, not only in dimensions but also in
speed, as well as radius of action and strategical distribution of
the aerial forces.

The German nation forged ahead at a great pace and was able to
establish a distinct supremacy, at least on paper. In the light
of recent events it is apparent that the German military
authorities realised that the dawn of "The Day" was approaching
rapidly, and that it behoved them to be as fully prepared in the
air as upon the land. It was immaterial that the Zeppelin was
the synonym for disaster. By standardisation its cost could be
reduced while construction could be expedited. Furthermore, when
the matter was regarded in its broadest aspect, the fact was
appreciated that forty Zeppelins could be built at the cost of
one super-Dreadnought, so that adequate allowance could be made
for accidents now and then, since a Zeppelin catastrophe, no
matter how complete it may be, is regarded by the Teuton as a
mere incident inseparable from progressive development.

At the beginning of the year 1914 France relied upon being
strengthened by a round dozen new dirigibles. Seven of these
were to be of 20,000 cubic metres' capacity and possessed of a
speed of 47 miles per hour. While the existing fleet was
numerically strong, this strength was more apparent than real,
for the simple reason that a large number of craft were in
dry-dock undergoing repair or overhaul while many of the units
were merely under test and could not be regarded therefore as in
the effective fleet. True, there were a certain number of
private craft which were liable to be commandeered when the
occasion arose, but they could not be considered as decided
acquisitions for the simple reason that many were purely
experimental units.

Aerial vessels, like their consorts upon the water, have been
divided into distinctive classes. Thus there are the aerial
cruisers comprising vessels exceeding 282,000 cubic feet in
capacity; scouts which include those varying between 176,600 and
282,000 cubic feet capacity; and vedettes, which take in all the
small or mosquito craft. At the end of 1913, France possessed
only four of the first-named craft in actual commission and thus
immediately available for war, these being the Adjutant Vincenot,
Adjutant Reau, Dupuy de Lome, and the Transaerien. The first
three are of 197,800 cubic feet. All, however, were privately
owned.

On the other hand, Germany had no fewer than ten huge vessels,
ranging from 353,000 to 776,900 cubic feet capacity, three of
which, the Victoria Luise, Suchard, and Hansa, though owned
privately, were immediately available for war. Of these the
largest was the Zeppelin naval vessel "L-1" 525 feet in length,
by 50 feet diameter, of 776,900 cubic feet capacity, equipped
with engines developing 510 horse-power, and with a speed of 51.8
miles per hour.

At the end of 1913 the effective aerial fleet of Germany
comprised twenty large craft, so far in advance of the French
aerial cruisers as to be worthy of the name bestowed upon them--
"Aerial Dreadnoughts." This merely represented the fleet
available for immediate use and did not include the four gigantic
Suchard-Schutte craft, each of 847,500 cubic feet, which were
under construction, and which were being hurried forward to come
into commission early in 1914.

But the most interesting factor, apart from the possession of
such a huge fleet of dirigible air-craft, was their distribution
at strategical points throughout the Empire as if in readiness
for the coming combat. They were literally dotted about the
country. Adequate harbouring facilities had been provided at
Konigsberg, Berlin, Posen, Breslau, Kiel, Hamburg, Wilhelmshaven,
Dusseldorf, Cologne, Frankfort, Metz, Mannheim, Strasburg, and
other places, with elaborate headquarters, of course, at
Friedrichshafen upon Lake Constance. The Zeppelin workshops,
harbouring facilities, and testing grounds at the latter point
had undergone complete remodelling, while tools of the latest
type had been provided to facilitate the rapid construction and
overhaul of the monster Zeppelin dirigibles. Nothing had been
left to chance; not an item was perfunctorily completed. The
whole organisation was perfect, both in equipment and
operation. Each of the above stations possessed provision for
an aerial Dreadnought as well as one or more aerial cruisers,
in addition to scouts or vedettes.

Upon the outbreak of hostilities Germany's dirigible fleet was in
a condition of complete preparedness, was better organised, and
better equipped than that of any of her rivals. At the same time
it constituted more of a paper than a fighting array for reasons
which I will explain later. But there was another point which
had escaped general observation. Standardisation of parts and
the installation of the desired machinery had accomplished one
greatly desired end--the construction of new craft had been
accelerated. Before the war an interesting experiment was
carried out to determine how speedily a vessel could be built.
The result proved that a dirigible of the most powerful type
could be completed within eight weeks and forthwith the various
constructional establishments were brought into line so as to
maintain this rate of building.

The growth of the Zeppelin, although built upon disaster, has
been amazing. The craft of 1906 had a capacity of 430,000 cubic
feet and a speed of 36 miles per hour. In 1911 the creator of
this type launched a huge craft having a capacity of 627,000
cubic feet. In the meantime speed had likewise been augmented by
the use of more powerful motors until 52 miles an hour was
attained. But this by no means represented the limit. The
foregoing vessels had been designed for land service purely and
simply, but now the German authorities demanded similar craft for
naval use, possessed of high speed and greater radius of action.
Count Zeppelin rose to the occasion, and on October 7th, 1912,
launched at Friedrichshafen the monster craft "L-I," 525 feet in
length, 50 feet in diameter, of 776,900 cubic feet capacity, a
displacement of 22 tons and equipped with three sets of motors
aggregating more than 500 horse-power, and capable of imparting a
speed of 52 miles per hour.

The appearance of this craft was hailed with intense delight by
the German nation, while the naval department considered her to
be a wonderful acquisition, especially after the searching
reliability trial. In charge of Count Zeppelin and manned by a
crew of 22 officers and men together with nearly three tons of
fuel--the fuel capacity conveys some idea of her possible radius
of action--she travelled from Friedrichshafen to Johannisthal in
32 hours. On this remarkable journey another point was
established which was of far-reaching significance. The vessel
was equipped with wireless telegraphy and therewith she kept in
touch with the earth below throughout the journey, dropping and
picking up wireless stations as she progressed with complete
facility. This was a distinct achievement, inasmuch as the vessel
having been constructed especially for naval operations she would
be able to keep in touch with the warships below, guiding them
unerringly during their movement.

The cross-country trip having proved so completely successful the
authorities were induced to believe that travelling over water
would be equally satisfactory. Accordingly the "L-I" was
dispatched to the island of Heligoland, the intention being to
participate in naval manoeuvres in order to provide some reliable
data as to the value of these craft operating in conjunction with
warships. But in these tests German ambition and pride received
a check. The huge Zeppelin was manoeuvring over the North Sea
within easy reach of Heligoland, when she was caught by one of
those sudden storms peculiar to that stretch of salt water. In a
moment she was stricken helpless; her motive power was
overwhelmed by the blind forces of Nature. The wind caught her
as it would a soap-bubble and hurled her into the sea,
precipitating the most disastrous calamity in the annals of
aeronautics, since not only was the ship lost, but fifteen of her
crew of 22 officers and men were drowned.

The catastrophe created consternation in German aeronautical
circles. A searching inquiry was held to explain the disaster,
but as usual it failed to yield much material information. It is
a curious circumstance, but every successive Zeppelin disaster,
and their number is legion, has been attributable to a new cause.
In this instance the accident was additionally disturbing,
inasmuch as the ship had been flying across country continuously
for about twelve months and had covered more miles than any
preceding craft of her type. No scientific explanation for the
disaster was forthcoming, but the commander of the vessel, who
sank with his ship, had previously ventured his personal opinion
that the vessel was over-loaded to meet the calls of ambition,
was by no means seaworthy, and that sooner or later she would be
caught by a heavy broadside wind and rendered helpless, or that
she would make a headlong dive to destruction. It is a
significant fact that he never had any faith in the airship, at
least for sea duty, though in response to official command he
carried out his duties faithfully and with a blind resignation to
Fate.

Meantime, owing to the success of the "L-I" in cross-country
operations, another and more powerful craft, the "L-II" had been
taken in hand, and this was constructed also for naval use.
While shorter than her consort, being only 487 feet over all,
thisvessel had a greater beam--55 feet. This latter increase was
decided because it was conceded to be an easier matter to provide
for greater beam than enhanced length in the existing air-ship
harbours. The "L-II" displaced 27 tons--five tons in excess of
her predecessor. In this vessel many innovations were
introduced, such as the provision of the passage-way connecting
the cars within the hull, instead of outside the latter as had
hitherto been the practice, while the three cars were placed more
closely together than formerly. The motors were of an improved
type, giving an aggregate output of 900 horse-power, and were
divided into four separate units, housed in two engine-rooms, the
front car being a replica in every detail of the navigating
bridge of a warship.

This vessel was regarded as a distinct improvement upon the
"L-I," although the latter could boast some great achievements.
But her glory was short-lived. In the course of the Government
trials, while some 900 feet aloft, the huge vessel suddenly
exploded and was burned in the air, a mass of broken and twisted
metal-work falling to the ground. Of the 28 officers and men,
including members of the Admiralty Board who were conducting the
official trials, all but one were killed outright, and the
solitary exception was so terribly burned as to survive the fall
for only a few hours.

The accident was remarkable and demonstrated very convincingly
that although Count Zeppelin apparently had made huge strides in
aerial navigation through the passage of years, yet in reality he
had made no progress at all. He committed the identical error
that characterised the effort of Severo Pax ten years previously,
and the disaster was directly attributable to the self-same cause
as that which overwhelmed the Severo airship. The gas, escaping
from the balloons housed in the hull, collected in the confined
passage-way communicating with the cars, came into contact with a
naked light, possibly the exhaust from the motors, and instantly
detonated with terrific force, blowing the airship to fragments
and setting fire to all the inflammable materials.

In this airship Zeppelin committed an unpardonable blunder.
He had ignored the factor of "internal safety," and had
deliberately flown in the face of the official rule which had
been laid down in France after the Severo disaster, which
absolutely forbade the inclusion of such confined spaces as
Zeppelin had incorporated. This catastrophe coming so closely as
it did upon the preceding disaster to the pride of the German
aerial fleet somewhat shook public confidence in these craft,
while aeronautical authorities of other countries described the
Zeppelin more vehemently than ever as a "mechanical monstrosity"
and a "scientific curiosity."

The Zeppelin has come to be feared in a general manner, but this
result is due rather to stories sedulously circulated, and which
may be easily traced to Teutonic sources. Very few data of a
reliable character have been allowed to filter through official
circles. We have been told somewhat verbosely of what it can
accomplish and of its high degree of efficiency and speed. But
can credence be placed in these statements?

When Zeppelin IV made its unexpected descent at Luneville, and
was promptly seized by the French authorities, the German War
office evinced distinct signs of uneasiness. The reason was
speedily forth coming. The captain of the craft which had been
captured forgot to destroy his log and other records of data
concerning the vessel which had been scientifically collected
during the journey. All this information fell into the hands of
the French military department, and it proved a wondrous
revelation. It enabled the French to value the Zeppelin at its
true worth, which was by no means comparable to the estimate
based on reports skilfully circulated for the benefit of the
world at large.

Recently the French military department permitted the results of
their expert official examination to be made public. From close
investigation of the log-book and the diagrams which had been
prepared, it was found that the maximum speed attained by
Zeppelin IV during this momentous flight was only 45 miles per
hour! It was ascertained, moreover, that the load was 10,560
pounds, and the ascensional effort 45,100 pounds. The fuel
consumption had averaged 297 pounds per hour, while the fuel
tanks carried sufficient for a flight of about seven hours. The
airship had attained a maximum height of about 6,230 feet, to
reach which 6,600 pounds of ballast had to be discarded.
Moreover, it was proved that a Zeppelin, if travelling under
military conditions with full armament and ammunition aboard,
could carry sufficient fuel for only ten hours at the utmost,
during which, if the slightest head-wind prevailed, it could not
cover more than 340 miles on the one fuel charge.

This information has certainly proved a revelation and has
contributed to the indifference with which the Parisians regard a
Zeppelin raid. At the outbreak of war the Zeppelin station
nearest to Paris was at Metz, but to make the raid from that
point the airship was forced to cover a round 500 miles. It is
scarcely to be supposed that perfectly calm weather would prevail
during the whole period of the flight, so that a raid would be
attended by considerable risk. That this handicap was recognised
in German military circles is borne out by the fact that a
temporary Zeppelin hangar was established at a point considerably
nearer the French capital, for the purpose of enabling a raid to
be carried out with a greater possibility of success.

The capture of Zeppelin IV revealed another important fact. The
critical flying height of the airship is between 3,300 and 4,000
feet. To attempt a raid at such an altitude would be to court
certain disaster, inasmuch as the vessel would have to run the
gauntlet of the whole of the French artillery, which it is
admitted has a maximum range exceeding the flying altitude of the
Zeppelin. That the above calculation is within reason is
supported by the statements of Count Zeppelin himself, who has
declared that his airships are useless at a height exceeding
5,000 feet. Confirmatory evidence upon this point is offered by
the raid upon the British East Coast towns, when it is stated
that the aircraft were manoeuvring at a height not exceeding
2,000 feet.

CHAPTER VI
THE MILITARY VALUE OF GERMANY'S AERIAL FLEET

Although the Zeppelin undoubtedly has been over-rated by the
forces to which it is attached, at the same time it must not be
under-estimated by its detractors. Larger and more powerful
vessels of this type have been, and still are being, constructed,
culminating, so far as is known, in the "L-5," which is stated to
have a capacity of about 1,000,000 cubic feet, and to possess an
average speed of 65 miles per hour.

While it is generally maintained that the Zeppelins will prove
formidable in attack, greater reliance is being placed upon the
demoralising or terrifying effect which they are able to
exercise. Owing to the fact that from 3 to 5 tons of fuel--say
900 to 1,500 gallons of gasoline or petrol--can be carried
aboard, giving them a wide radius of action, it is doubtful
whether they could travel from Cologne to London and back upon a
single fuel charge, since such a raid would entail a journey of
about 600 miles. The latest types of this craft are said to
possess a high ascensional speed, which offers a distinct
protection against aeroplane attack. According to such official
information as has been vouchsafed, a Zeppelin, when hard
pressed, is able to rise vertically 3,500 feet in about three
minutes. This is far in excess of the ascensional speed of even
the speediest aeroplane. of course, the penalty for such a
factor has to be paid: the loss of gas is appreciable and may
lead to the craft's ultimate undoing. At the same time, however,
it is able to maintain the superior position as compared with
the aeroplane for a considerable period: the upper reaches of the
air are its sanctuary.

Nor must the nocturnal activities of the Zeppelin be overlooked.
So far as night operations by these vessels are concerned, little
has leaked out, so that the possibilities of the airship in this
direction are still somewhat hypothetical. The fact remains,
however, that it is night movements which perhaps are the most to
be dreaded by the enemy. According to official German sources of
information the latest types of Zeppelins are engined by
"noiseless" motors. There is nothing remarkable in this feature,
since the modern motor-car virtually answers to this description,
although in this instance quietness is obtained for the most part
by recourse to the sleeve-valve engine. Still, the ordinary
Otto-cycle internal combustion engine can be rendered almost
silent by the utilisation of adequate muffling devices, which, in
the Zeppelin, are more possible of incorporation than in the
aeroplane, because the extra weight imposed by this acquisition
is a minor consideration in comparison with the lifting power of
the vessel.

Night operations, however, have not proved eminently successful.
The very darkness which protects the aerial prowler also serves a
similar purpose in connection with its prey. But aerial
operations under the cover of darkness are guided not so much by
the glare of lights from below as betrayal by sound. The
difference between villages and cities may be distinguished from
aloft, say at 1,500 to 3,000 feet, by the hum which life and
movement emit, and this is the best guide to the aerial scout or
battleship. The German authorities have made a special study of
this peculiar problem, and have conducted innumerable tests upon
the darkest nights, when even the sheen of the moon has been
unavailable, for the express purpose of training the aerial
navigators to discover their position from the different sounds
reaching them from below. In other words, the corsair in the
skies depends more upon compass and sound than upon compass and
vision when operating after dark. The searchlights with which
the Zeppelins are equipped are provided merely for illuminating
a supposed position. They are not brought into service until
the navigator concludes that he has arrived above the desired
point: the ray of light which is then projected is merely to
assist the crew in the discharge of the missiles of destruction.

The Zeppelin, however, owing to its speed, both in the horizontal
and vertical planes, is essentially a unit for daylight
operations. The other airships which Germany possesses, and
which for the most part are of the non-rigid type, are condemned
to daylight operations from the character of their design. Owing
to their low speeds they may be dismissed as impossible aerial
vessels for hazardous work and are not regarded by the German
authorities as all-round airships of war.

Craft of the air are judged in Germany from the one standard
only. This may be a Teutonic failing, but it is quite in keeping
with the Teutonic spirit of militarism. Commercialism is a
secondary factor. To the German Emperor an airship is much what
a new manufacturing process or machine is to the American.
Whereas the latter asks, "How much will it save me on the
dollar?" to the War Lord of Germany--and an airship
notwithstanding its other recommendatory features is judged
solely from this standpoint--the question is "What are its
military qualifications?"

When the semi-rigid airship "V-I" was brought before the notice
of the German military department the pressing point concerning
its military recommendations arose at once. The inventor had
foreseen this issue and was optimistic. Thereupon the
authorities asked if the inventor were prepared to justify his
claims. The retort was positive. Forthwith the Junkers decided
to submit it to the test.

This ship is of quite a distinctive type. It is an aerial
cruiser, and the inventor claims that it combines all the
essential qualifications of the Zeppelin and of the competitors
of the latter, in addition to the advantage of being capable of
dissection, transportation in parts, and rapid re-erection at any
desired spot. The length of the vessel is about 270 feet;
maximum diameter approximately 42 feet, and capacity about
300,000 cubic feet. The outstanding feature is a rigid
keel-frame forming a covered passage way below the envelope or
gas-bag, combined with easy access to all parts of the craft
while under way, together with an artificial stiffening which
dispenses with the necessity of attaching any additional cars.
The frame is so designed that the load, as well as the ballast
and fuel tanks, may be distributed as desired, and at the same
time it ensures an advantageous disposition of the steering
mechanism, far removed from the centre of rotation at the stern,
without any overloading of the latter.

The lifting part of the airship comprises a single gas bag fitted
with two ballonets provided to ensure the requisite gas-tension
in the main envelope, while at the same time permitting, in times
of emergency, a rapid change of altitude. Self-contained blowers
contribute to the preservation of the shape of the envelope, the
blowers and the ballonets being under the control of the pilot.
Planes resembling Venetian blinds facilitate vertical steering,
while the suspension of the keel is carried out in such a manner
as to secure uniformity of weight upon the gas bag. The
propelling power comprises two sets of internal combustion
engines, each developing 130 horse-power, the transmission being
through rubber belting. The propellers, built of wood, make 350
revolutions per minute, and are set as closely as possible to the
centre of resistance.

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