Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

F >> Frederick A. Talbot >> Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

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But the most salient characteristic of this machine is its
portability. It can be dismantled and transported by wagons to
any desired spot, the suspension frame being constructed in
units, each of which is sufficiently small to be accommodated in
an ordinary vehicle. Upon arrival the parts may be put together
speedily and easily. The authorities submitted the airship to
exacting trials and were so impressed by its characteristics and
the claims of the inventor that undoubtedly it will be brought
into service during the present crisis.

At the same time the whole faith of the German military staff so
far as airship operations are concerned, is pinned to the
Zeppelin. Notwithstanding its many drawbacks it is the vessel
which will be used for the invasion of Great Britain. Even the
harbour question, which is admitted to be somewhat acute, has
been solved to a certain degree. At strategical points permanent
harbours or airship sheds have been established. Seeing that the
airships demand considerable skill in docking and undocking, and
that it is impossible to achieve these operations against the
wind, swinging sheds have been adopted.

On water the practice is to anchor a floating harbour at one end,
leaving the structure to swing round with the wind. But on dry
land such a dock is impossible. Accordingly turntable sheds
have been adopted. The shed is mounted upon a double turn-table,
there being two circular tracks the one near the centre of the
shed and the other towards its extremities. The shed is mounted
upon a centre pivot and wheels engaged with these inner and outer
tracks. In this manner the shed may be swung round to the most
favourable point of the compass according to the wind.

In the field, however, such practices are impossible, and the
issue in this connection has been overcome by recourse to what
may be termed portable harbours. They resemble the tents of
peripatetic circuses and travelling exhibitions. There is a
network of vertical steel members which may be set with facility
and speed and which are stayed by means of wire guys. At the top
of the outer vertical posts pulleys are provided whereby the
outer skin or canvas forming the walls may be hauled into
position, while at the apex of the roof further pulleys ensure
the proper placing of the roofing. The airship is able to enter
or leave from either end according to conditions. The material
is fireproofed as a precautionary measure, but at the same time
the modern aerial bomb is able to penetrate the roofing without
any difficulty and to explode against the airship anchored
within.

The one great objection to the Zeppelin harbour is the huge
target it offers to hostile attack, which, in the event of a
vessel being moored within, is inevitably serious. Thus, for
instance, upon the occasion of the air raids conducted by
Lieutenant Collet and of Squadron Commander Briggs and his
colleagues at Dusseldorf and Friedrichshafen respectively,
little difficulty was experienced in destroying the airships
riding at anchor. The target offered by the shed is so extensive
that it would be scarcely possible for a flying enemy to miss it.
A bomb dropped from a reasonable height, say 500 feet, would be
almost certain to strike some part of the building, and a
Zeppelin is an easy vessel to destroy. The firing of one balloon
is sufficient to detonate the whole, for the simple reason that
hydrogen gas is continuously oozing through the bags in which it
is contained. According to a recent statement the Germans are
said to be utilising an inert or non-inflammable gas, equal in
lifting power to hydrogen, for the inflation of military craft,
but scientific thought does not entertain this statement with any
degree of seriousness. No gas as light as hydrogen and
non-explosive is known to commerce.

Will Germany invade Great Britain by air? This is the absorbing
topic of the moment--one which has created intense interest and a
certain feeling of alarm among the timorous. Although sporadic
raids are considered to be possible and likely to be carried out
with a varying measure of success--such as that made upon the
British East Coast--eminent authorities ridicule an invasion in
force. The risk would be enormous, although there is no doubt
that Germany, which has always maintained that an invasion of
this character will be made, will be compelled to essay such a
task, in order to satisfy public opinion, and to justify official
statements. It is a moot point, however, whether the invaders
ever will succeed in making good their escape, unless Nature
proves exceptionally kind.

The situation is best summed up in the unbiassed report of
General George P. Scriven, Chief Signal officer of the United
States Army to the U.S. Secretary of War. In this report, which
deals exhaustively with the history, construction and
achievements of airships, such an invasion is described as
fantastic and impracticable. Writing on November 10th, 1914,
the officer declares that "he is not prepared to recommend the
American Army to take up seriously the question of
constructing dirigibles, as they are not worth their cost as
offensive machines, while for reconnaissance or defence they are
of far less value than aeroplanes." In his words, "Dirigibles
are seemingly useless in defence against the aeroplane or
gun-fire."

In order to be able to make an invasion in force upon Great
Britain's cities extremely favourable weather must prevail, and
the treacherous nature of the weather conditions of the North Sea
are known fully well both to British and Teuton navigators.
Seeing that the majority of the Zeppelin pilots are drawn from
the Navy and mercantile marine, and thus are conversant with the
peculiarities and characteristics of this stretch of salt water,
it is only logical to suppose that their knowledge will exert a
powerful influence in any such decision, the recommendations
of the meteorological savants not withstanding.

When the Zeppelin pride of the German Navy "L-1" was hurled to
destruction by a typical North Sea squall, Captain Blew of the
Victoria Luise, a Zeppelin with many great achievements to her
credit, whose navigator was formerly in the Navy, and thus is
familiar with the whole issue, explained that this atmospheric
liveliness of the North Sea prevails for the most part in the
latitude of Norway, but that it frequently extends as far south
as the gate of the Channel. He related furthermore that the rain
squalls are of tropical violence, while the vertical thrusts of
air are such that no dirigible as yet constructed could ever hope
to live in them. Under such conditions, he continued, the gas is
certain to cool intensely, and the hull must then become
waterlogged, not to mention the downward thrust of the rain.
Under such conditions buoyancy must be imperilled to such a
degree as to demand the jettisoning of every piece of ballast,
fuel and other removable weight, including even the steadying and
vertical planes. When this has been done, he pointed out,
nothing is left with which to combat the upward vertical thrusts
of the air. To attempt to run before the wind is to court
positive disaster, as the wind is certain to gain the mastery.
Once the airship loses steering way and is rendered
uncontrollableit becomes the sport of the forces of Nature, with
the result that destruction is merely a matter of minutes, or
even seconds.

Every navigator who knows the North Sea will support these
conclusions. Squalls and blizzards in winter, and thunderstorms
in summer, rise with startling suddenness and rage with terrific
destructive fury. Such conditions must react against the attempt
of an aerial invasion in force, unless it be made in the
character of the last throw by a desperate gambler, with good
fortune favouring the dash to a certain degree. But lesser and
more insignificant Zeppelin raids are likely to be somewhat
frequent, and to be made at every favourable climatic
opportunity.

CHAPTER VII
AEROPLANES OF WAR

Owing to the fertility of inventors and the resultant
multiplicity of designs it is impossible to describe every type
of heavier-than-air machine which has been submitted to the
exacting requirements of military duty. The variety is infinite
and the salient fact has already been established that many
of the models which have proved reliable and efficient under
normal conditions are unsuited to military operations. The early
days of the war enabled those of doubtful value to be eliminated,
the result being that those machines which are now in use
represent the survival of the fittest. Experience has
furthermore emphasised the necessity of reducing the number of
types to the absolute minimum. This weeding-out process is being
continued and there is no doubt that by the time the war is
concluded the number of approved types of aeroplanes of military
value will have been reduced to a score or less. The
inconveniences and disadvantages arising from the utilisation of
a wide variety of different types are manifold, the greatest
being the necessity of carrying a varied assortment of spare
parts, and confusion in the repair and overhauling shops.

The methodical Teuton was the first to grasp the significance of
these drawbacks; he has accordingly carried standardisation to a
high degree of efficiency, as is shown in another chapter. At a
later date France appreciated the wisdom of the German practice,
and within a short time after the outbreak of hostilities
promptly ruled out certain types of machines which were regarded
as unsuitable. In this instance the process of elimination
created considerable surprise, inasmuch as it involved an embargo
on the use of certain machines, which under peace conditions had
achieved an international reputation, and were held to represent
the finest expression of aeronautical science in France as far as
aeroplane developments are concerned.

Possibly the German machine which is most familiar, by name, to
the general public is the Taube, or, as it is sometimes called,
the Etrich monoplane, from the circumstance that it was evolved
by the Austrian engineer Igo Etrich in collaboration with his
colleague Wels. These two experimenters embarked on the study of
dynamic flight contemporaneously with Maxim, Langley, Kress, and
many other well-known pioneers, but it was not until 1908 that
their first practical machine was completed. Its success was
instantaneous, many notable flights being placed to its credit,
while some idea of the perfection of its design may be gathered
from the fact that the machine of to-day is substantially
identical with that used seven years ago, the alterations which
have been effected meanwhile being merely modifications in minor
details.

The design of this machine follows very closely the lines of a
bird in flight--hence its colloquial description, "Taube," or
"dove." Indeed the analogy to the bird is so close that the ribs
of the frame resemble the feathers of a bird. The supporting
plane is shaped in the manner of a bird's distended wing, and is
tipped up at the rear ends to ensure stability. The tail also
resembles that of a bird very closely.

This aeroplane, especially the latest type, is very speedy, and
it has proved extremely reliable. It is very sharp in turning
and extremely sensitive to its rudder, which renders it a
first-class craft for reconnoitring duty. The latest machines
are fitted with motors developing from 120 to 150 horse-power.

The "Taube" commanded attention in Germany for the reason that
it indicated the first departure from the adherence to the French
designs which up to that time had been followed somewhat
slavishly, owing to the absence of native initiative.

The individuality of character revealed in the "Taube" appealed
to the German instinct, with the result that the machine achieved
a greater reputation than might have been the case had it been
pitted against other types of essentially Teutonic origin. The
Taube was subsequently tested both in France and Great Britain,
but failed to raise an equal degree of enthusiasm, owing to the
manifestation of certain defects which marred its utility. This
practical experience tended to prove that the Taube, like the
Zeppelin, possessed a local reputation somewhat of the paper
type. The Germans, however, were by no means disappointed
by such adverse criticism, but promptly set to work to eliminate
defects with a view to securing an all-round improvement.

The most successful of these endeavours is represented in the
Taube-Rumpler aeroplane, which may be described as an improved
edition of Etrich's original idea. As a matter of fact the
modifications were of so slight, though important, a character
that many machines generically described as Taubes are in reality
Rumplers, but the difference is beyond detection by the ordinary
and unpractised observer.

In the Rumpler machine the wings, like those of the Taube, assume
broadly the form and shape of those of the pigeon or dove in
flight. The early Rumpler machines suffered from sluggish
control, but in the later types this defect has been overcome.
In the early models the wings were flexible, but in the present
craft they are rigid, although fitted with tips or ailerons. The
supporting truss beneath the wings, which was such an outstanding
feature of its prototype, has been dispensed with, the usual
I-beam longitudinals being used in its stead. The latest
machines fitted with 100-120 horse-power Mercedes motors have a
fine turn of speed, possess an enhanced ascensional effort, and
are far simpler to control

Other German machines which are used in the military service are
the Gotha and the Albatross. The former is a monoplane, and here
again the influence of Etrich upon German aeroplane developments
is strongly manifested, the shape of the bird's wing being
retained. In the Gotha the truss which Etrich introduced is a
prominent characteristic. The Albatross is a biplane, but this
craft has proved to be somewhat slow and may be said to be
confined to what might be described as the heavier aerial
military duties, where great endurance and reliability are
essential. As the war proceeds, doubtless Teuton ingenuity will
be responsible for the appearance of new types, as well as
certain modifications in the detail construction of the existing
machines, but there is every indication that the broad lines of
Etrich's conception will be retained in all monoplanes.

There is one point in which Germany has excelled. Wood is not
employed in the construction of these heavier-than-air craft.
Steel and the lighter tough alloys are exclusively used. In this
way the minimum of weight consistent with the maximum of strength
policy is carried out. Moreover the manufacture of component
parts is facilitated and accelerated to a remarkable degree by
the use of metal, while the tasks of fitting and repairing are
notably expedited by the practice of standardisation. Germany is
also manifesting commendable enterprise in the perfection of
light powerful motors for these dynamic machines. The latest
types of explosion-motors range from 100 to 150 horse-power; the
advantages of these are obvious.

Upon the outbreak of hostilities the French possessed an enormous
number and variety of aeroplanes and this aerial fleet had been
brought to a high standard of organisation. The aerial fleet is
sub-divided into squadrons called "escadrilles," each of which
comprises six machines and pilots. These units are kept up to
strength, wastage being made up from reserves, so as to maintain
the requisite homogeneity.

But ere the war had been in progress many weeks an official order
was issued forbidding the employment of the Bleriot, Deperdussin,
Nieuport, and R.E.P. monoplanes. Those which received official
approval included the Caudron, Henry, and Maurice Farman,
Morane-Saulnier, and Voisin machines.

This drastic order came somewhat as a thunderbolt, and the
reason for the decree has not been satisfactorily revealed.
Suffice to say that in one stroke the efficiency and numerical
strength of the French aerial navy were reduced very appreciably.
For instance, it is stated that there were thirty escadrilles of
Bleriot monoplanes together with pilots at the front, in addition
to thirty mixed escadrilles of the other prohibited types with
their fliers. Moreover a round 33 escadrilles of all the various
types were in reserve. The effect of the military order was to
reduce the effective strength by no fewer than 558 aeroplanes.

Seeing that the French aerial force was placed at a great
disadvantage numerically by this action, there seems to be ample
justification for the hostile criticism which the decree of
prohibition aroused in certain circles, especially when it is
remembered that there was not an equal number of the accepted
machines available to take the place of those which had been
ruled out of court. One effect of this decree was to throw some
400 expert aviators upon the waiting list for the simple reason
that machines were unavailable. Some of the best aviation skill
and knowledge which France possesses were affected by the order.
It is stated that accomplished aviators, such as Vedrines, were
unable to obtain machines.

It will be seen that the ultimate effect of the French military
decree was to reduce the number of types to about four, each of
which was allotted a specific duty. But whereas three different
bi-planes are on the approved list there is only one monoplane--
the Morane-Saulaier. This machine, however, has a great turn of
speed, and it is also able to climb at a very fast pace. In
these respects it is superior to the crack craft of Germany, so
that time after time the latter have refused battle in the skies,
and have hurried back to their lines.

The Morane-Saulnier is the French mosquito craft of the air and
like the insect, it is avowedly aggressive. In fact, its duties
are confined to the work of chasing and bringing down the enemy,
for which work its high manoeuvring capacity is excellently
adapted. Its aggressive armament comprises a mitrailleuse.
Unfortunately, however, the factory responsible for the
production of this machine is at present handicapped by the
limitations of its manufacturing plant, which when pushed to the
utmost extent cannot turn out more than about ten machines per
week. No doubt this deficiency will be remedied as the war
proceeds by extension of the works or by allotting orders to
other establishments, but at the time of the decree the
manufacturing capacity was scarcely sufficient to make good the
wastage, which was somewhat heavy.

As far as biplanes are concerned the Caudron is the fastest in
flight and is likewise extremely quick in manoeuvring. It is a
very small machine and is extremely light, but the fact that it
can climb at the rate of over 330 feet per minute is a distinct
advantage in its favour. It supplements the Morane-Saulnier
monoplane in the specific duty of the latter, while it is also
employed for discovering the enemy's artillery and communicating
the range of the latter to the French and British artillery. In
this latter work it has played a very prominent part and to
it is due in no small measure that deadly accuracy of the
artillery of the Allies which has now become so famous. This
applies especially to those tactics, where the field artillery
dashes up to a position, discharges a number of rounds in rapid
succession, or indulges in rafale firing, and then limbering up,
rushes away before the enemy can reply.

As is well known the Farman biplanes possess high endurance
qualities. They can remain aloft for many hours at a stretch and
are remarkably reliable. Owing to these qualities they are
utilised for prolonged and searching reconnoitring duties such as
strategical reconnaissances as distinct from the hurried and
tactical reconnaissances carried out by fleeter machines. While
they are not so speedy as the monoplanes of the German military
establishment, endurance in this instance is preferable to pace.
A thorough survey of the enemy's position over the whole of his
military zone, which stretches back for a distance of 30 miles or
so from the outer line of trenches, is of incalculable value to a
commander who is contemplating any decisive movement or who is
somewhat in doubt as to the precise character of his antagonist's
tactics.

The French aerial fleet has been particularly active in its work
of raiding hostile positions and submitting them to a fusillade
of bombs from the clouds. The machine which is allotted this
specific task is the Voisin biplane. This is due to the fact
that this machine is able to carry a great weight. It was
speedily discovered that in bomb-raids it is essential for
an aeroplane to be able to carry a somewhat large supply of
missiles, owing to the high percentage of misses which attends
these operations. A raid by a machine capable of carrying only,
say, half-a-dozen projectiles, is virtually a waste of fuel, and
the endurance limitations of the fast machines reacts against
their profitable use in this work. On the other hand, the fact
that the Voisin machine is able to carry a large supply of bombs
renders it an ideal craft for this purpose; hence the official
decision to confine it to this work.

So far as the British efforts in aerial work are concerned there
is no such display of rigid selection as characterises the
practice of the French and German military authorities.
Britain's position in the air has been extensively due to private
enterprise, and this is still being encouraged. Moreover at the
beginning of the war Britain was numerically far inferior both to
her antagonist and to her ally. Consequently it was a wise move
to encourage the private manufacture of machines which had
already established their value. The consequence is that a
variety of machines figure in the British aerial navy. Private
initiative is excellently seconded by the Government
manufacturing aeroplane factory, while the training of pilots
is likewise being carried out upon a comprehensive scale.
British manufacture may be divided into two broad classes--the
production of aeroplanes and of waterplanes respectively.
Although there is a diversity of types there is a conspicuous
homogeneity for the most part, as was evidenced by the British
raid carried out on February 11-12, when a fleet of 34 machines
raided the various German military centres established along the
coast of Flanders.

Considerable secrecy has been displayed by the British Government
concerning the types of machines that are being utilised,
although ample evidence exists from the producing activity of the
various establishments that all available types which have
demonstrated their reliability and efficiency are being turned to
useful purpose. The Avro and Sopwith warplanes with their very
high speeds have proved remarkably successful.

So far as manufacturing is concerned the Royal Aerial Factory may
be said to constitute the back bone of the British aerial fleet.
This factory fulfils various purposes. It is not only engaged in
the manufacture of machines, and the development of aeroplanes
for specific duties, but also carries out the inspection and
testing of machines built by private firms. Every machine is
submitted to an exacting test before it is passed into the
service.

Three broad types of Government machines are manufactured at this
establishment. There is that designed essentially for scouting
operations, in which speed is the all-important factor and which
is of the tractor type. Another is the "Reconnoitring" machine
known officially as the "R.E." to-day, but formerly as the "B.E"
(Bleriot-Experimental), a considerable number of which are in
commission.

This machine is also of the tractor type, carrying a pilot and an
observer, and has a maximum speed of 40-50 miles per hour. If
required it can further be fitted with an automatic gun for
defence and attack. The third craft is essentially a fighting
machine. Owing to the introduction of the machine-gun which is
fixed in the prow, with the marksman immediately behind it, the
screw is placed at the rear. The pilot has his seat behind the
gunner. The outstanding feature of these machines is the high
factor of safety, which attribute has astonished some of the
foremost aviation experts in the world.

Great Britain lagged behind her Continental rivals in the
development of the Fourth Arm, especially in matters pertaining
to motive power. For some time reliance was placed upon foreign
light highspeed explosion motors, but private enterprise was
encouraged, with the result that British Motors comparing
favourably in every respect with the best productions upon the
Continent are now available. Development is still proceeding,
and there is every evidence that in the near future entire
reliance will be placed upon the native motor.

Undoubtedly, as the war progresses, many valuable lessons will
be learned which will exercise an important bearing upon the
design and construction of warplanes. The ordeals to which the
machines are submitted in military duties are far more severe
than any imposed by the conditions of commerce. Accordingly
there is every indication that the conflict upon the Continent
will represent a distinctive epoch in aeroplane design and
construction. Many problems still await solution, such as the
capacity to hover over a position, and it is quite possible
that these complex and baffling questions will be settled
definitely as the result of operations in the field. The
aeroplane has reached a certain stage of evolution: further
progress is virtually impossible unless something revolutionary
is revealed, perfected, and brought to the practical stage.

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