Industrial Biography

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When William Fairbairn entered Manchester he was twenty-four years of
age; and his hat still "covered his family." But, being now pretty
well satiated with his "wandetschaft,"--as German tradesmen term
their stage of travelling in search of trade experience,--he desired
to settle, and, if fortune favoured him, to marry the object of his
affections, to whom his heart still faithfully turned during all his
wanderings. He succeeded in finding employment with Mr. Adam
Parkinson, remaining with him for two years, working as a millwright,
at good wages. Out of his earnings he saved sufficient to furnish a
two-roomed cottage comfortably; and there we find him fairly
installed with his wife by the end of 1816. As in the case of most
men of a thoughtful turn, marriage served not only to settle our
engineer, but to stimulate him to more energetic action. He now began
to aim at taking a higher position, and entertained the ambition of
beginning business on his own account. One of his first efforts in
this direction was the preparation of the design of a cast-iron
bridge over the Irwell, at Blackfriars, for which a prize was
offered. The attempt was unsuccessful, and a stone bridge was
eventually decided on; but the effort made was creditable, and proved
the beginning of many designs. The first job he executed on his own
account was the erection of an iron conservatory and hothouse for Mr.
J. Hulme, of Clayton, near Manchester; and he induced one of his
shopmates, James Lillie, to join him in the undertaking. This proved
the beginning of a business connection which lasted for a period of
fifteen years, and laid the foundation of a partnership, the
reputation of which, in connection with mill-work and the
construction of iron machinery generally, eventually became known all
over the civilized world.

Although the patterns for the conservatory were all made, and the
castings were begun, the work was not proceeded with, in consequence
of the notice given by a Birmingham firm that the plan after which it
was proposed to construct it was an infringement of their patent. The
young firm were consequently under the necessity of looking about
them for other employment. And to be prepared for executing orders,
they proceeded in the year 1817 to hire a small shed at a rent of
l2s. a week, in which they set up a lathe of their own making,
capable of turning shafts of from 3 to 6 inches diameter; and they
hired a strong Irishman to drive the wheel and assist at the heavy
work. Their first job was the erection of a cullender, and their next
a calico-polishing machine; but orders came in slowly, and James
Lillie began to despair of success. His more hopeful partner
strenuously urged him to perseverance, and so buoyed him up with
hopes of orders, that he determined to go on a little longer. They
then issued cards among the manufacturers, and made a tour of the
principal firms, offering their services and soliciting work.

Amongst others, Mr. Fairbairn called upon the Messrs. Adam and George
Murray, the large cotton-spinners, taking with him the designs of his
iron bridge. Mr. Adam Murray received him kindly, heard his
explanations, and invited him to call on the following day with his
partner. The manufacturer must have been favourably impressed by this
interview, for next day, when Fairbairn and Lillie called, he took
them over his mill, and asked whether they felt themselves competent
to renew with horizontal cross-shafts the whole of the work by which
the mule-spinning machinery was turned. This was a formidable
enterprise for a young firm without capital and almost without plant
to undertake; but they had confidence in themselves, and boldly
replied that they were willing and able to execute the work. On this,
Mr. Murray said he would call and see them at their own workshop, to
satisfy himself that they possessed the means of undertaking such an
order. This proposal was by no means encouraging to the partners, who
feared that when Mr. Murray spied "the nakedness of the land " in
that quarter, he might repent him of his generous intentions. He paid
his promised visit, and it is probable that he was more favourably
impressed by the individual merits of the partners than by the
excellence of their machine-tools--of which they had only one, the
lathe which they had just made and set up; nevertheless he gave them
the order, and they began with glad hearts and willing hands and
minds to execute this their first contract. It may be sufficient to
state that by working late and early--from 5 in the morning until 9
at night for a considerable period--they succeeded in completing the
alterations within the time specified, and to Mr. Murray's entire
satisfaction. The practical skill of the young men being thus proved,
and their anxiety to execute the work entrusted to them to the best
of their ability having excited the admiration of their employer, he
took the opportunity of recommending them to his friends in the
trade, and amongst others to Mr. John Kennedy, of the firm of
MacConnel and Kennedy, then the largest spinners in the kingdom.

The Cotton Trade had by this time sprung into great importance, and
was increasing with extraordinary rapidity. Population and wealth
were pouring into South Lancashire, and industry and enterprise were
everywhere on foot. The foundations were being laid of a system of
manufacturing in iron, machinery, and textile fabrics of nearly all
kinds, the like of which has perhaps never been surpassed in any
country. It was a race of industry, in which the prizes were won by
the swift, the strong, and the skilled. For the most part, the early
Lancashire manufacturers started very nearly equal in point of
worldly circumstances, men originally of the smallest means often
coming to the front - work men, weavers, mechanics, pedlers, farmers,
or labourers--in course of time rearing immense manufacturing
concerns by sheer force of industry, energy, and personal ability.
The description given by one of the largest employers in Lancashire,
of the capital with which he started, might apply to many of them:
"When I married," said he, "my wife had a spinning-wheel, and I had a
loom--that was the beginning of our fortune." As an illustration of
the rapid rise of Manchester men from small beginnings, the following
outline of John Kennedy's career, intimately connected as he was with
the subject of our memoir--may not be without interest in this place.

John Kennedy was one of five young men of nearly the same age, who
came from the same neighbourhood in Scotland, and eventually settled
in Manchester as cottons-pinners about the end of last century. The
others were his brother James, his partner James MacConnel, and the
brothers Murray, above referred to--Mr. Fairbairn's first extensive
employers. John Kennedy's parents were respectable peasants,
possessed of a little bit of ground at Knocknalling, in the stewartry
of Kirkcudbright, on which they contrived to live, and that was all.
John was one of a family of five sons and two daughters, and the
father dying early, the responsibility and the toil of bringing up
these children devolved upon the mother. She was a strict
disciplinarian, and early impressed upon the minds of her boys that
they had their own way to make in the world. One of the first things
she made them think about was, the learning of some useful trade for
the purpose of securing an independent living; "for," said she, "if
you have gotten mechanical skill and intelligence, and are honest and
trustworthy, you will always find employment and be ready to avail
yourselves of opportunities for advancing yourselves in life." Though
the mother desired to give her sons the benefits of school education,
there was but little of that commodity to be had in the remote
district of Knocknalling. The parish-school was six miles distant,
and the teaching given in it was of a very inferior sort--usually
administered by students, probationers for the ministry, or by
half-fledged dominies, themselves more needing instruction than able
to impart it. The Kennedys could only attend the school during a few
months in summer-time, so that what they had acquired by the end of
one season was often forgotten by the beginning of the next. They
learnt, however, to read the Testament, say their catechism, and
write their own names.

As the children grew up, they each longed for the time to come when
they could be put to a trade. The family were poorly clad; stockings
and shoes were luxuries rarely indulged in; and Mr. Kennedy used in
after-life to tell his grandchildren of a certain Sunday which he
remembered shortly after his father died, when he was setting out for
Dalry church, and had borrowed his brother Alexander's stockings, his
brother ran after him and cried, "See that you keep out of the dirt,
for mind you have got my stockings on!" John indulged in many
day-dreams about the world that lay beyond the valley and the
mountains which surrounded the place of his birth. Though a mere boy,
the natural objects, eternally unchangeable, which daily met his
eyes--the profound silence of the scene, broken only by the bleating
of a solitary sheep, or the crowing of a distant cock, or the
thrasher beating out with his flail the scanty grain of the black
oats spread upon a skin in the open air, or the streamlets leaping
from the rocky clefts, or the distant church-bell sounding up the
valley on Sundays-- all bred in his mind a profound melancholy and
feeling of loneliness, and he used to think to himself, "What can I
do to see and know something of the world beyond this?" The greatest
pleasure he experienced during that period was when packmen came
round with their stores of clothing and hardware, and displayed them
for sale; he eagerly listened to all that such visitors had to tell
of the ongoings of the world beyond the valley.

The people of the Knocknalling district were very poor. The greater
part of them were unable to support the younger members, whose custom
it was to move off elsewhere in search of a living when they arrived
at working years,--some to America, some to the West Indies, and some
to the manufacturing districts of the south. Whole families took
their departure in this way, and the few friendships which Kennedy
formed amongst those of his own age were thus suddenly snapped, and
only a great blank remained. But he too could follow their example,
and enter upon that wider world in which so many others had ventured
and succeeded. As early as eight years of age, his mother still
impressing upon her boys the necessity of learning to work, John
gathered courage to say to her that he wished to leave home and
apprentice himself to some handicraft business. Having seen some
carpenters working in the neighbourhood, with good clothes on their
backs, and hearing the men's characters well spoken of, he thought it
would be a fine thing to be a carpenter too, particularly as the
occupation would enable him to move from place to place and see the
world. He was as yet, however, of too tender an age to set out on the
journey of life; but when he was about eleven years old, Adam Murray,
one of his most intimate acquaintances, having gone off to serve an
apprenticeship in Lancashire with Mr. Cannan of Chowbent, himself a
native of the district, the event again awakened in him a strong
desire to migrate from Knocknalling. Others had gone after Murray,
James MacConnel and two or three more; and at length, at about
fourteen years of age, Kennedy himself left his native home for
Lancashire. About the time that he set out, Paul Jones was ravaging
the coasts of Galloway, and producing general consternation
throughout the district. Great excitement also prevailed through the
occurrence of the Gordon riots in London, which extended into remote
country places; and Kennedy remembered being nearly frightened out of
his wits on one occasion by a poor dominie whose school he attended,
who preached to his boys about the horrors that were coming upon the
land through the introduction of Popery. The boy set out for England
on the 2nd of February, 1784, mounted upon a Galloway, his little
package of clothes and necessaries strapped behind him. As he passed
along the glen, recognising each familiar spot, his heart was in his
mouth, and he dared scarcely trust himself to look back. The ground
was covered with snow, and nature quite frozen up. He had the company
of his brother Alexander as far as the town of New Galloway, where he
slept the first night. The next day, accompanied by one of his future
masters, Mr. James Smith, a partner of Mr. Cannan's, who had
originally entered his service as a workman, they started on ponyback
for Dumfries. After a long day's ride, they entered the town in the
evening, and amongst the things which excited the boy's surprise were
the few street-lamps of the town, and a waggon with four horses and
four wheels. In his remote valley carts were as yet unknown, and even
in Dumfries itself they were comparative rarities; the common means
of transport in the district being what were called "tumbling cars."
The day after, they reached Longtown, and slept there; the boy noting
ANOTHER lamp. The next stage was to Carlisle, where Mr. Smith, whose
firm had supplied a carding engine and spinning-jenny to a small
manufacturer in the town, went to "gate" and trim them. One was put
up in a small house, the other in a small room; and the sight of
these machines was John Kennedy's first introduction to
cotton-spinning. While going up the inn-stairs he was amazed and not
a little alarmed at seeing two men in armour--he had heard of the
battles between the Scots and English--and believed these to be some
of the fighting men; though they proved to be but effigies. Five more
days were occupied in travelling southward, the resting places being
at Penrith, Kendal, Preston, and Chorley, the two travellers arriving
at Chowbent on Sunday the 8th of February, 1784. Mr. Cannan seems to
have collected about him a little colony of Scotsmen, mostly from the
same neighbourhood, and in the evening there was quite an assembly of
them at the "Bear's Paw," where Kennedy put up, to hear the tidings
from their native county brought by the last new comer. On the
following morning the boy began his apprenticeship as a carpenter
with the firm of Cannan and Smith, serving seven years for his meat
and clothing. He applied himself to his trade, and became a good,
steady workman. He was thoughtful and self-improving, always
endeavouring to acquire knowledge of new arts and to obtain insight
into new machines. "Even in early life," said he, in the account of
his career addressed to his children, "I felt a strong desire to know
what others knew, and was always ready to communicate what little I
knew myself; and by admitting at once my want of education, I found
that I often made friends of those on whom I had no claims beyond
what an ardent desire for knowledge could give me."

His apprenticeship over, John Kennedy commenced business*
[footnote...
One of the reasons which induced Kennedy thus early to begin the
business of mule-spinning has been related as follows. While employed
as apprentice at Chowbent, he happened to sleep over the master's
apartment; and late one evening, on the latter returning from market,
his wife asked his success. "I've sold the eightys," said he, "at a
guinea a pound." "What," exclaimed the mistress, in a loud voice,
"sold the eightys for ONLY a guinea a pound! I never heard of such a
thing." The apprentice could not help overhearing the remark, and it
set him a-thinking. He knew the price of cotton and the price of
labour, and concluded there must be a very large margin of profit. So
soon as he was out of his time, therefore, he determined that he
should become a cotton spinner.
...]
in a small way in Manchester in 1791, in conjunction with two other
workmen, Sandford and MacConnel. Their business was machine-making
and mule-spinning, Kennedy taking the direction of the machine
department. The firm at first put up their mules for spinning in any
convenient garrets they could hire at a low rental. After some time,
they took part of a small factory in Canal Street, and carried on
their business on a larger scale. Kennedy and MacConnel afterwards
occupied a little factory in the same street,--since removed to give
place to Fairbairn's large machine works. The progress of the firm
was steady and even rapid, and they went on building mills and
extending their business--Mr. Kennedy, as he advanced in life,
gathering honour, wealth, and troops of friends. Notwithstanding the
defects of his early education, he was one of the few men of his
class who became distinguished for his literary labours in connexion
principally with the cotton trade. Towards the close of his life, he
prepared several papers of great interest for the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester, which are to be found printed in
their Proceedings; one of these, on the Invention of the Mule by
Samuel Crompton, was for a long time the only record which the public
possessed of the merits and claims of that distinguished inventor.
His knowledge of the history of the cotton manufacture in its various
stages, and of mechanical inventions generally, was most extensive
and accurate. Among his friends he numbered James Watt, who placed
his son in his establishment for the purpose of acquiring knowledge
and experience of his profession. At a much later period he numbered
George Stephenson among his friends, having been one of the first
directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and one of the
three judges (selected because of his sound judgment and proved
impartiality, as well as his knowledge of mechanical engineering) to
adjudicate on the celebrated competition of Locomotives at Rainhill.
By these successive steps did this poor Scotch boy become one of the
leading men of Manchester, closing his long and useful life in 1855
at an advanced age, his mental faculties remaining clear and
unclouded to the last. His departure from life was happy and
tranquil--so easy that it was for a time doubtful whether he was dead
or asleep.

To return to Mr. Fairbairn's career, and his progress as a millwright
and engineer in Manchester. When he and his partner undertook the
extensive alterations in Mr. Murray's factory, both were in a great
measure unacquainted with the working of cotton-mills, having until
then been occupied principally with corn-mills, and printing and
bleaching works; so that an entirely new field was now opened to
their united exertions. Sedulously improving their opportunities, the
young partners not only thoroughly mastered the practical details of
cotton-mill work, but they were very shortly enabled to introduce a
series of improvements of the greatest importance in this branch of
our national manufactures. Bringing their vigorous practical minds to
bear on the subject, they at once saw that the gearing of even the
best mills was of a very clumsy and imperfect character. They found
the machinery driven by large square cast-iron shafts, on which huge
wooden drums, some of them as much as four feet in diameter, revolved
at the rate of about forty revolutions a minute; and the couplings
were so badly fitted that they might be heard creaking and groaning a
long way off. The speeds of the driving-shafts were mostly got up by
a series of straps and counter drums, which not only crowded the
rooms, but seriously obstructed the light where most required for
conducting the delicate operations of the different machines. Another
serious defect lay in the construction of the shafts, and in the mode
of fixing the couplings, which were constantly giving way, so that a
week seldom passed without one or more breaks-down. The repairs were
usually made on Sundays, which were the millwrights' hardest working
days, to their own serious moral detriment; but when trade was good,
every consideration was made to give way to the uninterrupted running
of the mills during the rest of the week.

It occurred to Mr. Fairbairn that the defective arrangements thus
briefly described, might be remedied by the introduction of lighter
shafts driven at double or treble the velocity, smaller drums to
drive the machinery, and the use of wrought-iron wherever
practicable, because of its greater lightness and strength compared
with wood. He also provided for the simplification of the hangers and
fixings by which the shafting was supported, and introduced the
"half-lap coupling" so well known to millwrights and engineers. His
partner entered fully into his views; and the opportunity shortly
presented itself of carrying them into effect in the large new mill
erected in 1818, for the firm of MacConnel and Kennedy. The machinery
of that concern proved a great improvement on all that had preceded
it; and, to Messrs. Fairbairn and Lillie's new system of gearing Mr.
Kennedy added an original invention of his own in a system of double
speeds, with the object of giving an increased quantity of twist in
the finer descriptions of mule yarn.

The satisfactory execution of this important work at once placed the
firm of Fairbairn and Lillie in the very front rank of engineering
millwrights. Mr. Kennedy's good word was of itself a passport to fame
and business, and as he was more than satisfied with the manner in
which his mill machinery had been planned and executed, he sounded
their praises in all quarters. Orders poured in upon them so rapidly,
that they had difficulty in keeping pace with the demands of the
trade. They then removed from their original shed to larger premises
in Matherstreet, where they erected additional lathes and other
tool-machines, and eventually a steam-engine. They afterwards added a
large cellar under an adjoining factory to their premises; and from
time to time provided new means of turning out work with increased
efficiency and despatch. In due course of time the firm erected a
factory of their own, fitted with the most improved machinery for
turning out millwork; and they went on from one contract to another,
until their reputation as engineers became widely celebrated. In
1826-7, they supplied the water-wheels for the extensive cotton-mills
belonging to Kirkman Finlay and Company, at Catrine Bank in Ayrshire.
These wheels are even at this day regarded as among the most perfect
hydraulic machines in Europe. About the same time they supplied the
mill gearing and water-machinery for Messrs. Escher and Company's
large works at Zurich, among the largest cotton manufactories on the
continent.

In the mean while the industry of Manchester and the neighbourhood,
through which the firm had risen and prospered, was not neglected,
but had the full benefit of the various improvements which they were
introducing in mill machinery. In the course of a few years an entire
revolution was effected in the gearing. Ponderous masses of timber
and cast-iron, with their enormous bearings and couplings, gave place
to slender rods of wrought-iron and light frames or hooks by which
they were suspended. In like manner, lighter yet stronger wheels and
pulleys were introduced, the whole arrangements were improved, and,
the workmanship being greatly more accurate, friction was avoided,
while the speed was increased from about 40 to upwards of 300
revolutions a minute. The fly-wheel of the engine was also converted
into a first motion by the formation of teeth on its periphery, by
which a considerable saving was effected both in cost and power.

These great improvements formed quite an era in the history of mill
machinery; and exercised the most important influence on the
development of the cotton, flax, silk, and other branches of
manufacture. Mr. Fairbairn says the system introduced by his firm was
at first strongly condemned by leading engineers, and it was with
difficulty that he could overcome the force of their opposition; nor
was it until a wheel of thirty tons weight for a pair of engines of
100-horse power each was erected and set to work, that their
prognostications of failure entirely ceased. From that time the
principles introduced by Mr. Fairbairn have been adopted wherever
steam is employed as a motive power in mills.

Mr. Fairbairn and his partner had a hard uphill battle to fight while
these improvements were being introduced; but energy and
perseverance, guided by sound judgment, secured their usual reward,
and the firm became known as one of the most thriving and
enterprising in Manchester. Long years after, when addressing an
assembly of working men, Mr. Fairbairn, while urging the necessity of
labour and application as the only sure means of self-improvement,
said, "I can tell you from experience, that there is no labour so
sweet, none so consolatory, as that which is founded upon an honest,
straightforward, and honourable ambition." The history of any
prosperous business, however, so closely resembles every other, and
its details are usually of so monotonous a character, that it is
unnecessary for us to pursue this part of the subject; and we will
content ourselves with briefly indicating the several further
improvements introduced by Mr. Fairbairn in the mechanics of
construction in the course of his long and useful career.

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