The Mastery of the Air
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William J. Claxton >> The Mastery of the Air
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Before the war Count Zeppelin was regarded by the British public
as rather a picturesque personality. He appeared in the romantic
guise of the inventor struggling against difficulties and
disasters which would soon have overwhelmed a man of less
resolute character. Even old age was included in his handicap,
for he was verging on seventy when still arming against a sea of
troubles.
The ebb and flow of his fortunes were followed with intense
interest in this country, and it is not too much to say that the
many disasters which overtook his air-ships in their experimental
stages were regarded as world-wide calamities.
When, finally, the Count stood on the brink of ruin and the
Kaiser stepped forward as his saviour, something like a cheer
went up from the British public at this theatrical episode.
Little did the audience realize what was to be the outcome of
the association between these callous and masterful minds.
And now for a brief sketch of Count Zeppelin's life-story. He
was born in 1838, in a monastery on an island in Lake Constance.
His love of adventure took him to America, and when he was about
twenty-five years of age he took part in the American Civil War.
Here he made his first aerial ascent in a balloon belonging to
the Federal army, and in this way made that acquaintance with
aeronautics which became the ruling passion of his life.
After the war was over he returned to Germany, only to find
another war awaiting him--the Austro-Prussian campaign. Later on
he took part in the Franco-Prussian War, and in both campaigns he
emerged unscathed.
But his heart was not in the profession of soldiering. He had
the restless mind of the inventor, and when he retired, a
general, after twenty years' military service, he was free to
give his whole attention to his dreams of aerial navigation. His
greatest ambition was to make his country pre-eminent in aerial
greatness.
Friends to whom he revealed his inmost thoughts laughed at him
behind his back, and considered that he was "a little bit wrong
in his head". Certainly his ideas of a huge aerial fleet
appeared most extravagant, for it must be remembered that the
motor-engine had not then arrived, and there appeared no
reasonable prospect of its invention.
Perseverance, however, was the dominant feature of Count
Zeppelin's character; he refused to be beaten. His difficulties
were formidable. In the first place, he had to master the whole
science of aeronautics, which implies some knowledge of
mechanics, meteorology, and electricity. This in itself was no
small task for a man of over fifty years of age, for it was not
until Count Zeppelin had retired from the army that he began to
study these subjects at all deeply.
The next step was to construct a large shed for the housing of
his air-ship, and also for the purpose of carrying out numerous
costly experiments. The Count selected Friedrichshafen, on the
shores of Lake Constance, as his head-quarters. He decided to
conduct his experiments over the calm waters of the lake, in
order to lessen the effects of a fall. The original shed was
constructed on pontoons, and it could be turned round as desired,
so that the air-ship could be brought out in the lee of any wind
from whatsoever quarter it came.
It is said that the Count's private fortune of about L25,000 was
soon expended in the cost of these works and the necessary
experiments. To continue his work he had to appeal for funds to
all his friends, and also to all patriotic Germans, from the
Kaiser downwards.
At length, in 1908, there came a turning-point in his fortunes.
The German Government, which had watched the Count's progress
with great interest, offered to buy his invention outright if he
succeeded in remaining aloft in one of his dirigibles for
twenty-four hours. The Count did not quite succeed in his task,
but he aroused the great interest of the whole German nation, and
a Zeppelin fund was established, under the patronage of the
Kaiser, in every town and city in the Fatherland. In about a
month the fund amounted to over L300,000. With this sum the
veteran inventor was able to extend his works, and produce
air-ship after air-ship with remarkable rapidity.
When, war broke out it is probable that Germany possessed at
least thirteen air-ships which had fulfilled very difficult
tests. One had flown 1800 miles in a single journey. Thus the
East Coast of England, representing a return journey of less than
600 miles was well within their range of action.
CHAPTER X
A Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction
After the Zeppelin fund had brought in a sum of money which
probably exceeded all expectations, a company was formed for the
construction of dirigibles in the Zeppelin works on Lake
Constance, and in 1909 an enormous air-ship was produced.
In shape a Zeppelin dirigible resembled a gigantic cigar, pointed
at both ends. If placed with one end on the ground in Trafalgar
Square, London, its other end would be nearly three times the
height of the Nelson Column, which, as you may know, is 166 feet.
From the diagram here given, which shows a sectional view of a
typical Zeppelin air-ship, we may obtain a clear idea of the main
features of the craft. From time to time, during the last dozen
years or so, the inventor has added certain details, but the main
features as shown in the illustration are common to all air-craft
of this type.
Zeppelin L1 was 525 feet in length, with a diameter of 50 feet.
Some idea of the size may be obtained through the knowledge that
she was longer than a modern Dreadnought. The framework was made
of specially light metal, aluminium alloy, and wood. This
framework, which was stayed with steel wire, maintained the shape
and rigidity of her gas-bags; hence vessels of this type are
known as RIGID air-ships. Externally the hull was covered with a
waterproof fabric.
Though, from outside, a rigid air-ship looks to be all in one
piece, within it is divided into numerous compartments. In
Zeppelin L1 there were eighteen separate compartments, each of
which contained a balloon filled with hydrogen gas. The object
of providing the vessel with these small balloons, or ballonets,
all separate from one another, was to prevent the gas collecting
all at one end of the ship as the vessel travelled through the
air. Outside the ballonets there was a ring-shaped, double
bottom, containing non-inflammable gas, and the whole was
enclosed in rubber-coated fabric.
The crew and motors were carried in cars slung fore and aft. The
ship was propelled by three engines, each of 170 horse-power.
One engine was placed in the forward car, and the two others in
the after car. To steer her to right or left, she had six
vertical planes somewhat resembling box-kites, while eight
horizontal planes enabled her to ascend or descend.
In Zeppelin L2, which was a later type of craft, there were four
motors capable of developing 820 horse-power. These drove four
propellers, which gave the craft a speed of about 45 miles an
hour.
The cars were connected by a gangway built within the framework.
On the top of the gas-chambers was a platform of aluminium alloy,
carrying a 1-pounder gun, and used also as an observation
station. It is thought that L1 was also provided with four
machine-guns in her cars.
Later types of Zeppelins were fitted with a "wireless"
installation of sufficient range to transmit and receive messages
up to 350 miles. L1 could rise to the height of a mile in
favourable weather, and carry about 7 tons over and above her own
weight.
Even when on ground the unwieldy craft cause many anxious moments
to the officers and mechanics who handle them. Two of the line
have broken loose from their anchorage in a storm and have been
totally destroyed. Great difficulty is also experienced in
getting them in and out of their sheds. Here, indeed, is a
contrast with the ease and rapidity with which an aeroplane is
removed from its hangar.
It was maintained by the inventor that, as the vessel is rigid,
and therefore no pressure is required in the gas-chamber to
maintain its shape, it will not be readily vulnerable to
projectiles. But the Count did not foresee that the very
"frightfulness" of his engine of war would engender
counter-destructives. In a later chapter an account will be
given of the manner in which Zeppelin attacks upon these
islands were gradually beaten off by the combined efforts of
anti-aircraft guns and aeroplanes. To the latter, and the
intrepid pilots and fighters, is due the chief credit for the
final overthrow of the Zeppelin as a weapon of offence. Both the
British and French airmen in various brilliant sallies succeeded
in gradually breaking up and destroying this Armada of the Air;
and the Zeppelin was forced back to the one line of work in which
it has proved a success, viz., scouting for the German fleet in
the few timid sallies it has made from home ports.
CHAPTER XI
The Semi-rigid Air-ship
Modern air-ships are of three general types: RIGID, SEMI-RIGID,
and NON-RIGID. These differ from one another, as the names
suggest, in the important feature, the RIGIDITY, NON-RIGIDITY,
and PARTIAL RIGIDITY of the gas envelope.
Hitherto we have discussed the RIGID type of vessel with which
the name of Count Zeppelin is so closely associated. This vessel
is, as we have seen, not dependent for its form on the gas-bag,
but is maintained in permanent shape by means of an aluminium
framework. A serious disadvantage to this type of craft is that
it lacks the portability necessary for military purposes. It is
true that the vessel can be taken to pieces, but not quickly.
The NON-RIGID type, on the other hand, can be quickly deflated,
and the parts of the car and engine can be readily transported to
the nearest balloon station when occasion requires.
In the SEMI-RIGID type of air-ship the vessel is dependent for
its form partly on its framework and partly on the form of the
gas envelope. The under side of the balloon consists of a flat
rigid framework, to which the planes are attached, and from which
the car, the engine, and propeller are suspended.
As the rigid type of dirigible is chiefly advocated in Germany,
so the semi-rigid craft is most popular in France. The famous
Lebaudy air-ships are good types of semi-rigid vessels. These
were designed for the firm of Lebaudy Freres by the well-known
French engineer M. Henri Julliot.
In November, 1902, M. Julliot and M. Surcouf completed an
air-ship for M. Lebaudy which attained a speed of nearly 25 miles
an hour. The craft, which was named Lebaudy I, made many
successful voyages, and in 1905 M. Lebaudy offered a second
vessel, Lebaudy II, to the French Minister of War, who accepted
it for the French nation, and afterwards decided to order another
dirigible, La Patrie, of the same type. Disaster, however,
followed these air-ships. Lebaudy I was torn from its anchorage
during a heavy gale in 1906, and was completely wrecked. La
Patrie, after travelling in 1907 from Paris to Verdun, in seven
hours, was, a few days later, caught in a gale, and the pilot was
forced to descend. The wind, however, was so strong that 200
soldiers were unable to hold down the unwieldy craft, and it was
torn from their hands. It sailed away in a north-westerly
direction over the Channel into England, and ultimately
disappeared into the North Sea, where it was subsequently
discovered some days after the accident.
Notwithstanding these disasters the French military authorities
ordered another craft of the same type, which was afterwards
named the Republique. This vessel made a magnificent flight of
six and a half hours in 1908, and it was considered to have quite
exceptional features, which eclipsed the previous efforts
of Messrs. Julliot and Lebaudy.
Unfortunately, however, this vessel was wrecked in a very
terrible manner. While out cruising with a crew of four officers
one of the propeller blades was suddenly fractured, and, flying
off with immense force, it entered the balloon, which it ripped
to pieces. The majestic craft crumpled up and crashed to the
ground, killing its crew in its fall.
In the illustration facing p. 17, of a Lebaudy air-ship, we have
a good type of the semi-rigid craft. In shape it somewhat
resembles an enormous porpoise, with a sharply-pointed nose.
The whole vessel is not as symmetrical as a Zeppelin dirigible,
but its inventors claim that the sharp prow facilitates the
steady displace ment of the air during flight. The stern is
rounded so as to provide sufficient support for the rear planes.
Two propellers are employed, and are fixed outside the car, one
on each side, and almost in the centre of the vessel. This is a
some what unusual arrangement. Some inventors, such as Mr.
Spencer, place the propellers at the prow, so that the air-ship
is DRAWN along; others prefer the propeller at the stern, whereby
the craft is PUSHED along; but M. Julliot chose the central
position, because there the disturbance of the air is smallest.
The body of the balloon is not quite round, for the lower part is
flattened and rests on a rigid frame from which the car is
suspended. The balloon is divided into three compartments, so
that the heavier air does not move to one part of the balloon
when it is tilted.
In the picture there is shown the petrol storage-tank, which is
suspended immediately under the rear horizontal plane, where it
is out of danger of ignition from the hot engine placed in the
car.
CHAPTER XII
A Non-rigid Balloon
Hitherto we have described the rigid and semi-rigid types of
air-ships. We have seen that the former maintains its shape
without assistance from the gas which inflates its envelope and
supplies the lifting power, while the latter, as its name
implies, is dependent for its form partly on the flat rigid
framework to which the car is attached, and partly on the gas
balloon.
We have now to turn our attention to that type of craft known as
a NON-RIGID BALLOON. This vessel relies for its form ENTIRELY
upon the pressure of the gas, which keeps the envelope distended
with sufficient tautness to enable it to be driven through the
air at a considerable speed.
It will at once be seen that the safety of a vessel of this type
depends on the maintenance of the gas pressure, and that it is
liable to be quickly put out of action if the envelope becomes
torn. Such an occurrence is quite possible in war. A
well-directed shell which pierced the balloon would undoubtedly
be disastrous to air-ship and crew. For this reason the
non-rigid balloon does not appear to have much future value as a
fighting ship. But, as great speed can be obtained from it, it
seems especially suited for short overland voyages, either for
sporting or commercial purposes. One of its greatest advantages
is that it can be easily deflated, and can be packed away into a
very small compass.
A good type of the non-rigid air-ship is that built by Major Von
Parseval, which is named after its inventor. The Parseval has
been described as "a marvel of modern aeronautical construction",
and also as "one of the most perfect expressions of modern
aeronautics, not only on account of its design, but owing to its
striking efficiency.
The balloon has the elongated form, rounded or pointed at one
end, or both ends, which is common to most air-ships. The
envelope is composed of a rubber-texture fabric, and externally
it is painted yellow, so that the chemical properties of the
sun's rays may not injure the rubber. There are two smaller
interior balloons, or COMPENSATORS, into which can be pumped air
by means of a mechanically-driven fan or ventilator, to make up
for contraction of the gas when descending or meeting a cooler
atmosphere. The compensators occupy about one-quarter of the
whole volume.
To secure the necessary inclination of the balloon while in
flight, air can be transferred from one of the compensators, say
at the fore end of the ship, into the ballonet in the aft part.
Suppose it is desired to incline the bow of the craft upward,
then the ventilating fan would DEFLATE the fore ballonet and
INFLATE the aft one, so that the latter, becoming heavier, would
lower the stern and raise the bow of the vessel.
Along each side of the envelope are seen strips to which the car
suspension-cords are attached. To prevent these cords being
jerked asunder, by the rolling or pitching of the vessel,
horizontal fins, each 172 square feet in area, are provided at
each side of the rear end of the balloon. In the past several
serious accidents have been caused by the violent pitching of
the balloon when caught in a gale, and so severe have been the
stresses on the suspension cords that great damage has been done
to the envelope, and the aeronauts have been fortunate if they
have been able to make a safe descent.
The propeller and engine are carried by the car, which is slung
well below the balloon, and by an ingenious contrivance the car
always remains in a horizontal position, however much the balloon
may be inclined. It is no uncommon occurrence for the balloon to
make a considerable angle with the car beneath.
The propeller is quite a work of art. It has a diameter of about
14 feet, and consists of a frame of hollow steel tubes covered
with fabric. It is so arranged that when out of action its
blades fall lengthwise upon the frame supporting it, but when it
is set to work the blades at once open out. The engine weighs
770 pounds, and has six cylinders, which develop 100 horse-power
at 1200 revolutions a minute.
The vessel may be steered either to the right or the left by
means of a large vertical helm, some 80 square feet in area,
which is hinged at the rear end to a fixed vertical plane of 200
square feet area.
An upward or downward inclination is, as we have seen, effected
by the ballonets, but in cases of emergency these compensators
cannot be deflated or inflated sufficiently rapidly, and a large
movable weight is employed for altering the balance of the
vessel.
In this country the authorities have hitherto favoured the
non-rigid air-ship for military and naval use. The Astra-Torres
belongs to this type of vessel, which can be rapidly deflated and
transported, and so, too, the air-ship built by Mr. Willows.
CHAPTER XIII
The Zeppelin and Gotha Raids
In the House of Commons recently Mr. Bonar Law announced that
since the commencement of the war 14,250 lives had been lost as
the result of enemy action by submarines and air-craft. A large
percentage of these figures represents women, children, and
defenceless citizens.
One had become almost hardened to the German method of making war
on the civil population--that system of striving to act upon
civilian "nerves" by calculated brutality which is summed up in
the word "frightfulness". But the publication of these figures
awoke some of the old horror of German warfare. The sum total of
lives lost brought home to the people at home the fact that
bombardment from air and sea, while it had failed to shake their
MORAL, had taken a large toll of human life.
At first the Zeppelin raids were not taken very seriously in this
country. People rushed out of their houses to see the unwonted
spectacle of an air-ship dealing death and destruction from the
clouds. But soon the novelty began to wear off, and as the raids
became more frequent and the casualty lists grew larger, people
began to murmur against the policy of taking these attacks "lying
down". It was felt that "darkness and composure" formed but a
feeble and ignoble weapon of defence. The people spoke with no
uncertain voice, and it began to dawn upon the authorities that
the system of regarding London and the south-east coast as part
of "the front" was no excuse for not taking protective measures.
It was the raid into the Midlands on the night of 31st January,
1916, that finally shelved the old policy of do nothing. Further
justification, if any were needed, for active measures was
supplied by a still more audacious raid upon the east coast of
Scotland, upon which occasion Zeppelins soared over England--at
their will. Then the authorities woke up, and an extensive
scheme of anti-aircraft guns and squadrons of aeroplanes was
devised. About March of the year 1916 the Germans began to break
the monotony of the Zeppelin raids by using sea-planes as
variants. So there was plenty of work for our new defensive air
force. Indeed, people began to ask themselves why we should not
hit back by making raids into Germany. The subject was well
aired in the public press, and distinguished advocates came
forward for and against the policy of reprisals. At a
considerably later date reprisals carried the day, and, as we
write, air raids by the British into Germany are of frequent
occurrence.
In March, 1916, the fruits of the new policy began to appear, and
people found them very refreshing. A fleet of Zeppelins found,
on approaching the mouth of the Thames, a very warm reception.
Powerful searchlights, and shells from new anti-aircraft guns,
played all round them. At length a shot got home. One of the
Zeppelins, "winged" by a shell, began a wobbly retreat which
ended in the waters of the estuary. The navy finished the
business. The wrecked air-ship was quickly surrounded by a
little fleet of destroyers and patrol-boats, and the crew were
brought ashore, prisoners. That same night yet another Zeppelin
was hit and damaged in another part of the country.
Raids followed in such quick succession as to be almost of
nightly occurrence during the favouring moonless nights. Later,
the conditions were reversed, and the attacks by aeroplane were
all made in bright moonlight. But ever the defence became more
strenuous. Then aeroplanes began to play the role of "hornets",
as Mr. Winston Churchill, speaking rather too previously,
designated them.
Lieutenant Brandon, R.F.C., succeeded in dropping several aerial
bombs on a Zeppelin during the raid on March 31, but it was not
until six months later that an airman succeeded in bringing down
a Zeppelin on British soil. The credit of repeating Lieutenant
Warneford's great feat belongs to Lieutenant W. R. Robinson, and
the fight was witnessed by a large gathering. It occurred in the
very formidable air raid on the night of September 2.
Breathlessly the spectators watched the Zeppelin harried by
searchlight and shell-fire. Suddenly it disappeared behind a veil
of smoke which it had thrown out to baffle its pursuers. Then it
appeared again, and a loud shout went up from the watching
thousands. It was silhouetted against the night clouds in a
faint line of fire. The hue deepened, the glow spread all round,
and the doomed airship began its crash to earth in a smother of
flame. The witnesses to this amazing spectacle naturally
supposed that a shell had struck the Zeppelin. Its tiny
assailant that had dealt the death-blow had been quite invisible
during the fight. Only on the following morning did the public
learn of Lieutenant Robinson's feat. It appeared that he had
been in the air a couple of hours, engaged in other conflicts
with his monster foes. Besides the V.C. the plucky airman won
considerable money prizes from citizens for destroying the first
Zeppelin on British soil.
The Zeppelin raids continued at varying intervals for the
remainder of the year. As the power of the defence increased the
air-ships were forced to greater altitudes, with a corresponding
decrease in the accuracy with which they could aim bombs on
specified objects. But, however futile the raids, and however
widely they missed their mark, there was no falling off in the
outrageous claims made in the German communiques. Bombs dropped
in fields, waste lands, and even the sea, masqueraded in the
reports as missiles which had sunk ships in harbour, destroyed
docks, and started fires in important military areas. So
persistent were these exaggerations that it became evident that
the Zeppelin raids were intended quite as much for moral effect
at home as for material damage abroad. The heartening effect of
the raids upon the German populace is evidenced by the mental
attitude of men made prisoners on any of the fronts. Only with
the utmost difficulty were their captors able to persuade them
that London and other large towns were not in ruins; that
shipbuilding was not at a standstill; and that the British people
was not ready at any moment to purchase indemnity from the raids
by concluding a German peace. When one method of terrorism fails
try another, was evidently the German motto. After the Zeppelin
the Gotha, and after that the submarine.
The next year--1917--brought in a very welcome change in the
situation. One Zeppelin after another met with its just deserts,
the British navy in particular scoring heavily against them. Nor
must the skill and enterprise of our French allies be forgotten.
In March, 1917, they shot down a Zeppelin at Compiegne, and seven
months later dealt the blow which finally rid these islands of
the Zeppelin menace.
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