A Smaller History of Greece

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Finding any further pursuit of Darius hopeless, Alexander now
directed his march towards Babylon. At a little distance from
the city the greater part of the population came out to meet him,
headed by their priests and magistrates, tendering their
submission and bearing with them magnificent presents. Alexander
then made his triumphant entry into Babylon, riding in a chariot
at the head of his army. The streets were strewed with flowers,
incense smoked on either hand on silver altars, and the priests
celebrated his entry with hymns. Nor was this a mere display of
a compulsory obedience. Under the Persian sway the Chaldaean
religion had been oppressed and persecuted; the temple of Belus
had been destroyed and still lay in ruins; and both priests and
people consequently rejoiced at the downfall of a dynasty from
which they had suffered so much wrong. Alexander observed here
the same politic conduct which he had adopted in Egypt. He
caused the ruined temples to be restored, and proposed to offer
personally, but under the direction of the priests, a sacrifice
to Belus. Alexander contemplated making Babylon the capital of
his future empire. His army was rewarded with a large donative
from the Persian treasury; and after being allowed to indulge for
some time in the luxury of Babylon, was again put in motion,
towards the middle of November, for Susa. It was there that the
Persian treasures were chiefly accumulated, and Alexander had
despatched one of his generals to take possession of the city
immediately after the battle of Arbela. It was surrendered
without a blow by the satrap Abulites. The treasure found there
amounted to 40,000 talents in gold and silver bullion, and 9000
in gold Darics. But among all these riches the interest of the
Greeks must have been excited in a lively manner by the discovery
of the spoils carried off from Greece by Xerxes. Among them were
the bronze statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, which Alexander
now sent back to Athens, and which were long afterwards preserved
in the Ceramicus.

At Susa Alexander received reinforcements of about 15,000 men
from Greece. He then directed his march south-eastwards towards
Persepolis. His road lay through the mountainous territory of
the Uxians, who refused him a passage unless he paid the usual
tribute which they were in the habit of extorting even from the
Persian kings. But Alexander routed them with great slaughter.
He then advanced rapidly to Persepolis, whose magnificent ruins
still attest its ancient splendour. It was the real capital of
the Persian kings, though they generally resided at Susa during
the winter, and at Ecbatana in summer. The treasure found there
exceeded that both of Babylon and Susa, and is said to have
amounted to 120,000 talents or nearly 30,000,000l. sterling. It
was here that Alexander is related to have committed an act of
senseless folly, by firing with his own hand the ancient and
magnificent palace of the Persian kings; of which the most
charitable version is that he committed the act when heated with
wine at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian courtezan. By some
writers, however, the story is altogether disbelieved, and the
real destruction of Persepolis referred to the Mahommedan epoch.
Whilst at Persepolis, Alexander visited the tomb of Cyrus, the
founder of the Persian monarchy, which was situated at a little
distance, at a city called Pasargadae.

Thus in between three and four years after crossing the
Hellespont Alexander had established himself on the Persian
throne. But Darius was not yet in his power. After the battle
of Arbela that monarch had fled to Ecbatana. It was not till
about four months after the battle of Arbela, and consequently
early in 330, that Alexander quitted Persepolis to resume the
pursuit of Darius. On approaching Ecbatana he learned that the
Persian monarch had already fled with the little army which still
adhered to him. Alexander, with his main body, then pursued
Darius through Media by forced marches and reached Rhagae, a
distance of three hundred miles from Ecbatana, in eleven days.
Such was the rapidity of the march that many men and horses died
of fatigue. At Rhagae he heard that Darius had already passed
the defile called the "Caspian Gates," leading into the Bactrian
provinces; and, as that pass was fifty miles distant, urgent
pursuit was evidently useless. He therefore allowed his troops
five days' rest, and then resumed his march. Soon after passing
the Gates he learned that Darius had been seized and loaded with
chains by his own satrap Bessus, who entertained the design of
establishing himself in Bactria as an independent sovereign.
This intelligence stimulated Alexander to make still further
haste with part of his cavalry and a chosen body of foot. On the
fourth day he succeeded in overtaking the fugitives with his
cavalry, having been obliged to leave the infantry behind, with
directions to follow more at leisure. The enemy, who did not
know his real strength, were struck with consternation at his
appearance, and fled precipitately. Bessus and his adherents now
endeavoured to persuade Darius to fly with them, and provided a
fleet horse for that purpose. But the Persian monarch, who had
already experienced the generosity of Alexander in the treatment
of his captive family, preferred to fall into his hands,
whereupon the conspirators mortally wounded him in the chariot in
which they kept him confined, and then took to flight. Darius
expired before Alexander could come up, who threw his own cloak
over the body. He then ordered him to be magnificently buried in
the tomb of his ancestors, and provided for the fitting education
of his children.

The next three years were employed by Alexander in subduing
Hyrcania, Drangiana, Bactria, and Sogdiana, and the other
northern provinces of the Persian empire. In these distant
regions he founded several cities, one of which in Aria, called
after him (Alexandria Ariorum), is still, under the name of
HERAT, one of the chief cities in central Asia. Alexander's stay
in Prophthasia, the capital of Drangiana, was signalized by a
supposed conspiracy against his life, formed by Philotas, the son
of Parmenio. Alexander had long entertained suspicions of
Philotas. But the immediate subject of accusation against him
was that he had not revealed a conspiracy which was reported to
be forming against Alexander's life, and which he had deemed too
contemptible to notice. He was consequently suspected of being
implicated in it; and on being put to the torture he not only
confessed his own guilt in his agonies, but also implicated his
father. Philotas was executed, and an order was sent to
Ecbatana, where Parmenio then was, directing that veteran general
to be put to death. A letter, purporting to be from his son, was
handed to him; and whilst the old man was engaged in reading it,
Polydamus, his intimate friend, together with some others of
Alexander's principal officers, fell upon and slew him. His head
was carried to Alexander.

Meantime Bessus had assumed the royal dignity in Bactria; but
upon Alexander's approach he fled across the Oxus into Sogdiana.
Early in the summer of 329 Alexander followed him across the
Oxus; and shortly afterwards Bessus was betrayed by two of his
own officers into the hands of Alexander. Bessus was carried to
Zariaspa, the capital of Bactria, where he was brought before a
Persian court, and put to death in a cruel and barbarous manner.

Alexander even crossed the river Jaxartes (SIR), and defeated the
Scythians. Sogdiana alone of the northern provinces offered any
serious resistance to his arms. Accordingly in 328 he again
crossed the Oxus. He divided his army into five bodies, ordering
them to scour the country in different directions. With the
troops under his own command he marched against the fortress
called the Sogdian Rock, seated on an isolated hill, so
precipitous as to be deemed inaccessible, and so well supplied
with provisions as to defy a blockade. The summons to surrender
was treated with derision by the commander, who inquired whether
the Macedonians had wings? But a small body of Macedonians
having succeeded in scaling some heights which overhung the
fortress, the garrison became so alarmed that they immediately
surrendered. To this place a Bactrian named Oxyartes, an
adherent of Bessus, had sent his daughters for safety. One of
them, named Roxana, was of surpassing beauty, and Alexander made
her the partner of his throne (B.C. 328).

At Maracanda (now SAMARCAND) he appointed his friend Clitus
satrap of Bactria. On the eve of the parting of the two friends
Alexander celebrated a festival in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor
and Pollux), though the day was sacred to Dionysus (Bacchus).
The banquet was attended by several parasites and literary
flatterers, who magnified the praises of Alexander with
extravagant and nauseous flattery. Clitus, whom wine had
released from all prudent reserve, sternly rebuked their fulsome
adulation; and, as the conversation turned on the comparative
merits of the exploits of Alexander and his father Philip, he did
not hesitate to prefer the exploits of the latter. He reminded
Alexander of his former services, and, stretching forth his hand,
exclaimed, "It was this hand Alexander, which saved your life at
the battle of the Granicus!" The king, who was also flushed with
wine, was so enraged by these remarks, that he rushed at Clitus
with the intention of killing him on the spot, but he was held
back by his friends, whilst Clitus was at the same time hurried
out of the room. Alexander, however, was no sooner released
than, snatching a spear, he sprang to the door, and meeting
Clitus, who was returning in equal fury to brave his anger, ran
him through the body. But when the deed was done he was seized
with repentance and remorse. He flung himself on his couch and
remained for three whole days in an agony of grief, refusing all
sustenance, and calling on the names of Clitus and of his sister
Lanice who had been his nurse. It was not till his bodily
strength began to fail through protracted abstinence that he at
last became more composed, and consented to listen to the
consolations of his friends, and the words of the soothsayers,
who ascribed the murder of Clitus to a temporary frenzy with
which Dionysus had visited him as a punishment for neglecting the
celebration of his festival.

After reducing Sogdiana, Alexander returned into Bactria in 327,
and began to prepare far his projected expedition into India.
While he was thus employed a plot was formed against his life by
the royal pages, incited by Hermolaus, one of their number, who
had been punished with stripes for anticipating the king during a
hunting party in slaying a wild boar. Hermolaus and his
associates, among whom was Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle,
were first tortured, and then put to death. It seems certain
that a conspiracy existed; but no less certain that the growing
pride and haughtiness of Alexander were gradually alienating from
him the hearts of his followers.

Alexander did not leave Bactria till late in the spring. He
crossed the Indus by a bridge of boats near Taxila, the present
ATTOCK, where the river is about 1000 feet broad, and very deep.
He now found himself in the district at present called the PENJ-
AB (or the FIVE RIVERS). Taxiles, the sovereign of the district,
at once surrendered Taxila, his capital and joined the Macedonian
force with 5000 men. Hence Alexander proceeded with little
resistance to the river Haydaspes (BEHUT or JELUM). On the
opposite bank, Porus, a powerful Indian king, prepared to dispute
his progress with a numerous and well-appointed force.
Alexander, however, by a skilful stratagem conveyed his army
safely across the river. An obstinate battle then ensued. In
the army of Porus were many elephants, the sight and smell of
which frightened the horses of Alexander's cavalry. But these
unwieldy animals ultimately proved as dangerous to the Indians as
to the Greeks; for when driven into a narrow space they became
unmanageable, and created great confusion in the ranks of Porus.
By a few vigorous charges the Indians were completely routed,
with the loss of 12,000 slain and 9000 prisoners. Among the
latter was Porus himself, who was conducted into the presence of
Alexander. The courage which he had displayed in the battle had
excited the admiration of the Macedonian king. Mounted on an
enormous elephant, he retreated leisurely when the day was lost,
and long rejected every summons to surrender; till at length,
overcome by thirst and fatigue, he permitted himself to be taken.
Even in this situation Porus still retained his majestic bearing,
the effect of which was increased by the extraordinary height of
his stature. On Alexander's inquiring how he wished to be
treated, he replied, "Like a king." "And have you no other
request?" asked Alexander. "No," answered Porus; "everything is
comprehended in the word king." Struck by his magnanimity,
Alexander not only restored him to his dominions, but also
considerably enlarged them; seeking by these means to retain him
as an obedient and faithful vassal.

Alexander rested a month on the banks of the Hydaspes, where he
celebrated his victory by games and sacrifices, and founded two
towns one of which he named Nicaea, and the other Bucephala, in
honour of his gallant charger Bucephalus, which is said to have
died there. He then overran the whole of the PENJ-AB, as far as
the Hyphasis (GHARRA), its southern boundary. Upon reaching this
river, the army, worn out by fatigues and dangers, positively
refused to proceed any farther; although Alexander passionately
desired to attack a monarch still more powerful than Porus, whose
dominions lay beyond the Hyphasis. All his attempts to induce
his soldiers to proceed proving ineffectual, he returned to the
Hydaspes, when he ordered part of his army to descend the river
on its opposite banks; whilst he himself at the head of 8000 men,
embarked on board a fleet of about 2000 vessels, which he had
ordered to he prepared with the view of sailing down the Indus to
its mouth.

The army began to move in November 327. The navigation lasted
several months, but was accomplished without any serious
opposition, except from the tribe of the Malli, who are
conjectured to have occupied the site of the present MOOLTAN. At
the storming of their town the life of Alexander was exposed to
imminent danger. He was the first to scale the walls of the
citadel, and was followed by four officers; but before a fifth
man could mount, the ladder broke, and Alexander was left exposed
on the wall to the missiles of the enemy. Leaping down into the
citadel among the enemy, he placed his back to the wall, where he
succeeded in keeping the enemy at bay, and slew two of their
chiefs who had ventured within reach of his sword. But an arrow
which pierced his corslet brought him to the ground, fainting
with loss of blood. Two of his followers, who had jumped down
after him, now stood over and defended him; till at length, more
soldiers having scaled the walls and opened one of the gates,
sufficient numbers poured in not only to rescue their monarch,
but to capture the citadel; when every living being within the
place was put to the sword. Upon arriving at the mouth of the
Indus, Nearchus with the fleet was directed to explore the Indian
Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the mouths of the Tigris and
Euphrates, with the view of establishing a maritime communication
between India and Persia. Alexander himself proceeded with his
army, in the autumn of 326, through the burning deserts of
Gedrosia towards Persepolis; marching himself on foot, and
sharing the privations and fatigues of the meanest soldier. In
these regions the very atmosphere seems to be composed of a fine
dust which, on the slightest wind, penetrates into the mouth and
nose, whilst the soil affords no firm footing to the traveller.
The march through this inhospitable region lasted 60 days, during
which numbers of the soldiers perished from fatigue or disease.
At length they emerged into the fertile province of Carmania.
Whilst in this country Alexander was rejoined by Nearchus, who
had arrived with his fleet at Harmozia (ORMUZ); but who
subsequently prosecuted his voyage to the head of the Persian
Gulf.

Upon reaching Susa (B.C. 325) Alexander allowed his soldiers to
repose from their fatigues, and amused them with a series of
brilliant festivities. It was here that he adopted various
measures with the view of consolidating his empire. One of the
most important was to form the Greeks and Persians into one
people by means of intermarriages. He himself celebrated his
nuptials with Statira the eldest daughter of Darius, and bestowed
the hand of her sister, Drypetis, on Hephaestion. Other
marriages were made between Alexander's officers and Asiatic
women, to the number, it is said, of about a hundred; whilst no
fewer than 10,000 of the common soldiers followed their example
and took native wives. As another means of amalgamating the
Europeans and Asiatics, he caused numbers of the latter to be
admitted into the army, and to be armed and trained in the
Macedonian fashion. But these innovations were regarded with a
jealous eye by most of the Macedonian veterans; and this feeling
was increased by the conduct of Alexander himself, who assumed
every day more and more of the state and manners of an eastern
despot. Their long-stifled dissatisfaction broke out into open
mutiny and rebellion at a review which took place at Opis on the
Tigris. But the mutiny was quelled by the decisive conduct of
Alexander. He immediately ordered thirteen of the ringleaders to
be seized and executed, and then, addressing the remainder,
pointed out to them how, by his own and his father's exertions,
they had been raised from the condition of scattered herdsmen to
be the masters of Greece and the lords of Asia; and that, whilst
he had abandoned to them the richest and most valuable fruits of
his conquest, he had reserved nothing but the diadem for himself,
as the mark of his superior labours and more imminent perils. He
then secluded himself for two whole days, during which his
Macedonian guard was exchanged for a Persian one, whilst nobles
of the same nation were appointed to the most confidential posts
about his person. Overcome by these marks of alienation on the
part of their sovereign, the Macedonians now supplicated with
tears to be restored to favour. A solemn reconciliation was
effected, and 10,000 veterans were dismissed to their homes under
the conduct of Craterus. That general was also appointed to the
government of Macedonia in place of Antipater, who was ordered to
repair to Asia with fresh reinforcements.

Soon after these occurrences Alexander proceeded to Ecbatana,
where during the autumn he solemnised the festival of Dionysus
with extraordinary splendour. But his enjoyment was suddenly
converted into bitterness by the death of his friend Hephaestion,
who was carried off by a fever. This event threw Alexander into
a deep melancholy, from which he never entirely recovered. The
memory of Hephaestion was honoured by extravagant marks of public
mourning, and his body was conveyed to Babylon, to be there
interred with the utmost magnificence.

Alexander entered Babylon in the spring of 324, notwithstanding
the warnings of the priests of Belus, who predicted some serious
evil to him if he entered the city at that time. Babylon was now
to witness the consummation of his triumphs and of his life.
Ambassadors from all parts of Greece, from Libya, Italy, and
probably from still more distant regions, were waiting to salute
him, and to do homage to him as the conqueror of Asia; the fleet
under Nearchus had arrived after its long and enterprising
voyage; whilst for the reception of this navy, which seemed to
turn the inland capital of his empire into a port, a magnificent
harbour was in process of construction. The mind of Alexander
was still occupied with plans of conquest and ambition; his next
design was the subjugation of Arabia; which, however, was to be
only the stepping-stone to the conquest of the whole known world.
He despatched three expeditions to survey the coast of Arabia;
ordered a fleet to be built to explore the Caspian sea; and
engaged himself in surveying the course of the Euphrates, and in
devising improvements of its navigation. The period for
commencing the Arabian campaign had already arrived; solemn
sacrifices were offered up for its success, and grand banquets
were given previous to departure. At these carousals Alexander
drank deep; and at the termination of the one given by his
favourite, Medius, he was seized with unequivocal symptoms of
fever. For some days, however, he neglected the disorder, and
continued to occupy himself with the necessary preparations for
the march. But in eleven days the malady had gained a fatal
strength, and terminated his life on the 28th of June, B.C. 323,
at the early age of 32. Whilst he lay speechless on his deathbed
his favourite troops were admitted to see him; but he could offer
them no other token of recognition than by stretching out his
hand.

Few of the great characters of history have been so differently
judged as Alexander. Of the magnitude of his exploits, indeed,
and of the justice with which, according to the usual sentiments
of mankind, they confer upon him the title of "Great," there can
be but one opinion. His military renown, however, consists more
in the seemingly extravagant boldness of his enterprises than in
the real power of the foes whom he overcame. The resistance he
met with was not greater than that which a European army
experiences in the present day from one composed of Asiatics; and
the empire of the East was decided by the two battles of Issus
and Arbela. His chief difficulties were the geographical
difficulties of distance, climate, and the nature of the ground
traversed. But this is no proof that he was incompetent to meet
a foe more worthy of his military skill; and his proceedings in
Greece before his departure show the reverse. His motive, it
must be allowed, seem rather to have sprung from the love of
personal glory and the excitement of conquest, than from any wish
to benefit his subjects. Yet on the whole his achievements,
though they undoubtedly occasioned great partial misery, must be
regarded as beneficial to the human race. By his conquests the
two continents were put into closer communication with one
another; and both, but particularly Asia, were the gainers. The
language, the arts, and the literature of Greece were introduced
into the East; and after the death of Alexander, Greek kingdoms
were formed in the western parts of Asia, which continued to
exist for many generations.

CHAPTER XXI.

FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE CONQUEST OF GREECE
BY THE ROMANS, B.C. 323-146.

The vast empire of Alexander the Great was divided, at his death,
among his generals; but, before relating their history, it is
necessary to take a brief retrospective glance at the affairs of
Greece. Three years after Alexander had quitted Europe the
Spartans made a vigorous effort to throw off the Macedonian yoke.
They were joined by most of the Peloponnesian states; but though
they met with some success at first, they were finally defeated
with great slaughter by Antipater near Megalopolis. Agis fell in
the battle, and the chains of Greece were riveted more firmly
than ever. This victory, and the successes of Alexander in the
East, encouraged the Macedonian party in Athens to take active
measures against Demosthenes; and AEschines revived an old charge
against him which had lain dormant for several years. Soon after
the battle of Chaeronea, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes
should be presented with a golden crown in the theatre during the
great Dionysiac festival, on account of the services he had
conferred upon his country. For proposing this decree AEschines
indicted Ctesiphon; but though the latter was the nominal
defendant, it was Demosthenes who was really put upon his trial.
The case was decided in 330 B.C., and has been immortalised by
the memorable and still extant speeches of AEschines 'Against
Ctesiphon' and of Demosthenes 'On the Crown.' AEschines, who did
not obtain a fifth part of the votes, and consequently became
himself liable to a penalty, was so chagrined at his defeat that
he retired to Rhodes.

In B.C. 325 Harpalus arrived in Athens. He had been left by
Alexander at Ecbatana in charge of the royal treasures, and
appears also to have held the important satrapy of Babylon.
During the absence of Alexander in India he gave himself up to
the most extravagant luxury and profusion, squandering the
treasures intrusted to him, at the same time that he alienated
the people subject to his rule by his lustful excesses and
extortions. He had probably thought that Alexander would never
return from the remote regions of the East into which he had
penetrated; but when he at length learnt that the king was on his
march back to Susa, and had visited with unsparing rigour those
of his officers who had been guilty of any excesses during his
absence, he at once saw that his only resource was in flight.
Collecting together all the treasures which he could, and
assembling a body of 6000 mercenaries, he hastened to the coast
of Asia, and from thence crossed over to Attica, At first the
Athenians refused to receive him; but bribes administered to some
of the principal orators induced them to alter their
determination. Such a step was tantamount to an act of hostility
against Macedonia itself; and accordingly Antipater called upon
the Athenians to deliver up Harpalus, and to bring to trial those
who had accepted his bribes. The Athenians did not venture to
disobey these demands. Harpalus was put into confinement, but
succeeded in making his escape from prison. Demosthenes was
among the orators who were brought to trial for corruption. He
was declared to be guilty, and was condemned to pay a fine of 50
talents. Not being able to raise that sum, he was thrown into
prison; but he contrived to make his escape, and went into exile.
There are, however, good grounds for doubting his guilt; and it
is more probable that he fell a victim to the implacable hatred
of the Macedonian party. Upon quitting Athens Demosthenes
resided chiefly at AEgina or Troezen, in sight of his native
land, and whenever he looked towards her shores it was observed
that he shed tears.

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