On Horsemanship
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Xenophon >> On Horsemanship
Etext prepared by John Bickers, jbickers@templar.actrix.gen.nz.
On Horsemanship
By Xenophon
Translation by H. G. Dakyns
Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
years before having to move once more, to settle
in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy
a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a
war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some
words on military equipment for a cavalryman.
PREPARER'S NOTE
This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a
four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though
there is doubt about some of these) is:
Work Number of books
The Anabasis 7
The Hellenica 7
The Cyropaedia 8
The Memorabilia 4
The Symposium 1
The Economist 1
On Horsemanship 1
The Sportsman 1
The Cavalry General 1
The Apology 1
On Revenues 1
The Hiero 1
The Agesilaus 1
The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2
Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
diacritical marks have been lost.
ON HORSEMANSHIP
I
Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship[1]
ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is
to explain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive
to be the most correct method of dealing with horses.
[1] Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time
'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in
horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we
conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing
with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a
{ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more
particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of
cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is
commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv.
14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.
There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the
same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens[2]
with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the
pedestal.[3] But we shall not on that account expunge from our
treatise any conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author;
on the contrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to
our friends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from
the fact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to
our own; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we
shall endeavour to supply them.
[2] L. Dind. [in Athens]. The Eleusinion. For the position of this
sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p.
296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p.
230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan,
"The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of
the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The
MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that
one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist.
"Knights," 242,
{andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon,
o Panaiti, ouk elate pros to dexion keras};
bears the name.
[3] Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own
performances."
As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best
avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.
Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny
must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted
can but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves
therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will
be the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful
its upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they
ought to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and
in particular a war-horse,[4] if unsound in his feet, however
excellent his other points; since he could not turn a single one of
them to good account.[5]
[4] Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see
"Mem." III. i. 7.
[5] Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86:
regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos
inspiciunt, ne, si facies, ut saepe, decora
molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,
quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.
and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll.
In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny
portion of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better
than a thin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are
high both before and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof
keeps the "frog,"[6] as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a
low hoof treads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot
alike, the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man.[7] "You may
tell a good foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily;[8] for the
hollow hoof rings like a cymbal against the solid earth.[9]
[6] Lit. "the swallow."
[7] Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed.
1892), pp. 3, 9.
[8] Or, "and he is right."
[9] Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12.
And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this
point to the rest of the body. The bones[10] above the hoof and below
the fetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through
not being properly elastic,[11] legs of this type will jar the rider,
and are more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones
must not be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated
when the horse is galloped over clods and stones.
[10] i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be
'sloping.'"
[11] Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch
like anvil to hammer."
The bones of the shanks[12] ought to be thick, being as they are the
columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not
puffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground
they will inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions
be set up,[13] the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin
recedes; and with this loosening of the skin the back sinew[14] is
very apt to start and render the horse lame.
[12] i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals."
[13] Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell
whilst the skin recedes from the bone."
[14] Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong,
and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part
in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be
termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order.
If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely
conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,
since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age.[15]
Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as
they do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue
than those of stiffer build.
[15] Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances."
Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades,[16] or arms, these if
thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just
as in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is
better alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the
legs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with
one another. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward
from the chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather,
it should shoot upwards to the crest, and be slack[17] along the
curvature; whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In
this way the neck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will
command what lies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this
build, however spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the
rider,[18] since it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck
and head that a horse endeavours to assert his power.[19]
[16] Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished
from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to
our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically
speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia.
[17] "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge).
[18] Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting."
[19] Or, "to display violence or run away."
It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on
one or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws[20] is
liable to become hard-mouthed on one side.
[20] Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive."
Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of
alertness, and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.
And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than
a contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer
aspect. Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against
another, or when his spirit chafes in being ridden,[21] the nostrils
at once become dilated.
[21] Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he
distends his nostrils."
A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and
horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow
the rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders
and the body.[22]
[22] Or if with L. D. [{kai to somati}], transl. "adhesion to the
horse's shoulders."
A "double spine,"[23] again, is at once softer to sit on than a
single, and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side
somewhat rounded towards the belly[24] will render the animal at once
easier to sit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to
digest his food.[25]
[23] Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii.
87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in
good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like
a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a
full back," as we say.
[24] Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la
Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits
par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83.
[25] i.e. "and keep in good condition."
The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise
his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these
points, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a
portion of the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and
partly tends to make the horse less strong and capable of carrying
weight.[26]
[26] Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait."
The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the
sides and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they
will be all the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse
in every way more fleet.
To come to the thighs (and buttocks):[27] if the horse have these
separated by a broad line of demarcation[28] he will be able to plant
his hind-legs under him with a good gap between;[29] and in so doing
will assume a posture[30] and a gait in action at once prouder and
more firmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.
[27] Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail."
[28] Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum.
Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me
diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards."
[29] Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc.
[30] {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the
horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op.
cit. p. 126).
The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a man
wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by
bringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together.
A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point
to be determined in the colt.
And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks,[31] or shanks and
fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already
about those of the fore-legs.
[31] {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?)
knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the
os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small.
I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the
probable size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at
the moment of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact
being--and it holds of all the domestic quadrupeds[32]--that with
advance of time the legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the
body grows uniformly up to these, until it has attained its proper
symmetry.
[32] Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N.
H." xi. 108.
Such is the type[33] of colt and such the tests to be applied, with
every prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal
fine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances
develop during growth, that need not prevent us from applying our
tests in confidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking
colt will turn out serviceable,[34] than that a foal of the above
description will turn out ugly or defective.
[33] Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us
the purchaser will get," etc.
[34] For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured,"
i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol.
Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid.
{eukhrestoi}, "serviceable."
II
The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our
hands.[1] As a matter of state organisation,[2] cavalry duties usually
devolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have a
considerable share in the government;[3] and it seems far better for a
young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship,
or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising
manouvres, than that he should set up as a trainer of horses.[4] The
older man has his town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-
one concerns of state or of war, on which to employ his time and
energies rather than on horsebreaking. It is plain then that any one
holding my views[5] on the subject will put a young horse out to be
broken. But in so doing he ought to draw up articles, just as a father
does when he apprentices his son to some art or handicraft, stating
what sort of knowledge the young creature is to be sent back possessed
of. These will serve as indications[6] to the trainer what points he
must pay special heed to if he is to earn his fee. At the same time
pains should be taken on the owner's part to see that the colt is
gentle, tractable, and affectionate,[7] when delivered to the
professional trainer. That is a condition of things which for the most
part may be brought about at home and by the groom--if he knows how to
let the animal connect[8] hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies
with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape from
sources of irritation with the presence of man. As the result of this
treatment, necessarily the young horse will acquire--not fondness
merely, but an absolute craving for human beings. A good deal can be
done by touching, stroking, patting those parts of the body which the
creature likes to have so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or
where, if there is anything annoying him, the horse can least of all
apply relief himself.
[1] Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us,
may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service
in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier,
"Notes," p. 84.
[2] "Organisation in the several states."
[3] Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the
state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that
are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9.
[4] Cf. "Econ." iii. 10.
[5] {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which
he started.
[6] Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft
in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda."
[7] "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man."
[8] Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc.,
should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink,
etc., come through help of man."
The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through
crowds, and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises;
and if the colt shows sign of apprehension at them,[9] he must teach
him--not by cruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really
formidable.
[9] Or, "is disposed to shy."
On this topic, then, of training,[10] the rules here given will, I
think, suffice for any private individual.
[10] Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will
perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an
amateur."
III
To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit for
riding, we will set down certain memoranda,[1] which, if applied
intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.
[1] "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to
be cheated."
First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse has
lost his mark teeth,[2] not only will the purchaser's hopes be
blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry
bargain.[3]
[2] Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See
Morgan, p. 126.
[3] Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to
gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed
of."
Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no
mistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth
and the headstall[4] over his ears? There need be little ambiguity on
this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again
removed, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse
stands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the
approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to them
enforced exertion.
[4] {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear.
Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be
induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of
horses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some horses
again, as the result of bad training, will run away from the
exercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be
detected by the exercise called the {pede} or volte,[5] and still more
so by varying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses
will not attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth
along with an avenue of escape home.[6]
[5] See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage
below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte.
[6] Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home
combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e . . . ekphora} = "the
exit from the manege or riding school."
Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go
at full speed the horse can be pulled up[7] sharp and is willing to
wheel round in obedience to the rein.
[7] {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For
{apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole."
It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to
purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one
knows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that
will not obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily
play the part of an arrant traitor.
And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for
war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can
bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,
scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by
galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a
slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge
the endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.
I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform
all these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since
many a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from
want of experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any
horse will come to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be
sound and free from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is
naturally of a nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not
only prevent the rider from using the vantage-ground of its back to
strike an enemy, but is as likely as not to bring him to earth
himself and plunge him into the worst of straits.
We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards
other horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish;[8]
such defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.
[8] Or, "very ticklish."
As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted,
dancing and twisting about and the rest,[9] you will get a more exact
idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will
try and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you
began your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness
to undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit
and endurance.
[9] Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and
twirlings about."
To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,
gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above
all things[10] obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, will
give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the
circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of
sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing
and manouvring, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his
hands and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.
[10] Al. "thoroughly."
IV
We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he
admires;[1] the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how
is he to be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a
quarter of the establishment where the master will see the horse as
often as possible.[2] It is a good thing also to have his stall so
arranged that there will be as little risk of the horse's food being
stolen from the manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-
closet. To neglect a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself;
since in the hour of danger, it is certain, the owner has to consign
himself, life and limb, to the safe keeping of his horse.
[1] Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire
and have brought him home."
[2] i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the
master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20.
Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure
horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse
takes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any
one who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom
either of too much blood,[3] which calls for veterinary aid, or of
over-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of
indigestion[4] or some other malady is coming on. And just as with
human beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at
their commencement[5] than after they have become chronic, or been
wrongly treated.[6]
[3] "A plethoric condition of the blood."
[4] {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot.
"H. A." viii. 24. 4.
[5] i.e. "in the early acute stages."