On Revenues
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[10] Reading {para ton pateron}, with Zurborg, after Wilamowitz-
Mollendorf.
[11] See "Mem." II. v. 2; Plut. "Nicias," 4; "Athen." vi. 272. See an
important criticism of Boeckh's view by Cornewall Lewis,
translation of "P. E. A." p. 675 foll.
[12] Reading {parekhein}, or if {pareikhen}, transl. "whilst he
himself kept up the number." See H. hagen in "Journ. Philol." x.
19, pp. 34-36; also Zurborg, "Comm." p. 28.
[13] Son of Callias.
[14] = L4:1:3 = 600 ob.
[15] Or, "whose incomes would vary in proportion to their working
capital."
[16] See Jebb, "Theophr." xxvi. 21.
[17] According to the ancient authorities the citizens of Athens
numbered about 21,000 at this date, which would give about 63,000
as the number of state-slaves contemplated for the purposes of the
scheme. See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 29. "At a census taken in B.C. 309
the number of slaves was returned at 400,000, and it does not seem
likely that there were fewer at any time during the classical
period."--"A Companion to School Classics" (James Gow), p. 101,
xiii. "Population of Attica."
With regard to the price then of the men themselves, it is obvious
that the public treasury is in a better position to provide funds than
any private individuals. What can be easier than for the Council[18]
to invite by public proclamation all whom it may concern to bring
their slaves, and to buy up those produced? Assuming the purchase to
be effected, is it credible that people will hesitate to hire from the
state rather than from the private owner, and actually on the same
terms? People have at all events no hesitation at present in hiring
consecrated grounds, sacred victims,[19] houses, etc., or in
purchasing the right of farming taxes from the state. To ensure the
preservation of the purchased property, the treasury can take the same
securities precisely from the lessee as it does from those who
purchase the right of farming its taxes. Indeed, fraudulent dealing is
easier on the part of the man who has purchased such a right than of
the man who hires slaves. Since it is not easy to see how the
exportation[20] of public money is to be detected, when it differs in
no way from private money. Whereas it will take a clever thief to make
off with these slaves, marked as they will be with the public stamp,
and in face of a heavy penalty attached at once to the sale and
exportation of them. Up to this point then it would appear feasible
enough for the state to acquire property in men and to keep a safe
watch over them.[21]
[18] Or, "senate." See Aristot. "Athen. Pol." for the functions of the
Boule.
[19] So Zurborg. See Demosth. "in Mid." 570; Boeckh, "P. E. A." II.
xii. (p. 212, Eng. tr.) See Arnold's note to "Thuc." iii. 50, 7.
[20] Or, "diversation," "defalcation."
[21] Or, "as far as that goes, then, there is nothing apparently to
prevent the state from acquiring property in slaves, and
safeguarding the property so acquired."
But with reference to an opposite objection which may present itself
to the mind of some one: what guarantee is there that, along with the
increase in the supply of labourers, there will be a corrsponding
demand for their services on the part of contractors?[22] It may be
reassuring to note, first of all, that many of those who have already
embarked on mining operations[23] will be anxious to increase their
staff of labourers by hiring some of these public slaves (remember,
they have a large capital at stake;[24] and again, many of the actual
labourers now engaged are growing old); and secondly, there are many
others, Athenians and foreigners alike, who, though unwilling and
indeed incapable of working physically in the mines, will be glad
enough to earn a livelihood by their wits as superintendents.[25]
[22] Or, "with this influx (multiplying) of labourers there will be a
corresponding increase in the demand for labour on the part of the
lessees."
[23] Or, "got their mining establishments started."
[24] Or, "of course they will, considering the amount of fixed capital
at stake," or, "since they have large resources at their back." I
have adopted Zurborg's stopping of this sentence.
[25] See "Mem." II. viii. 1, for an illustrative case.
Let it be granted, however, that at first a nucleus of twelve hundred
slaves is formed. It is hardly too sanguine a supposition that out of
the profits alone,[26] within five or six years this number may be
increased to at least six thousand. Again, out of that number of six
thousand--supposing each slave to being in an obol a day clear of all
expenses--we get a revenue of sixty talents a year. And supposing
twenty talents out of this sum laid out on the purchase of more
slaves, there will be forty talents left for the state to apply to any
other purpose it may find advisable. By the time the round number[27]
of ten thousand is reached the yearly income will amount to a hundred
talents.
[26] "Out of the income so derived."
[27] Or, "full complement."
As a matter of fact, the state will receive much more than these
figures represent,[28] as any one here will bear me witness who can
remember what the dues[29] derived from slaves realised before the
troubles at Decelea.[30] Testimony to the same effect is borne by the
fact, that in spite of the countless number of human beings employed
in the silver mines within the whole period,[31] the mines present
exactly the same appearance to-day as they did within the recollection
of our forefathers.[32] And once more everything that is taking place
to-day tends to prove that, whatever the number of slaves employed,
you will never have more than the works can easily absorb. The miners
find no limit of depth in sinking shafts or laterally in piercing
galleries. To open cuttings in new directions to-day is just as
possible as it was in former times. In fact no one can take on himself
to say whether there is more ore in the regions already cut into, or
in those where the pick has not yet struck.[33] Well then, it may be
asked, why is it that there is not the same rush to make new cuttings
now as in former times? The answer is, because the people concerned
with the mines are poorer nowadays. The attempt to restart operations,
renew plant, etc., is of recent date, and any one who ventures to open
up a new area runs a considerable risk. Supposing he hits upon a
productive field, he becomes a rich man, but supposing he draws a
blank, he loses the whole of his outlay; and that is a danger which
people of the present time are shy of facing.
[28] Or, "a very much larger sum than we have calculated on." Lit.
"many times over that sum."
[29] Or, "tax." See below, S. 49; for the whole matter see Thuc. vii.
27, vi. 91; Xen. "Mem." III. vi. 12, in reference to B.C. 413,
when Decelea had been fortified. As to the wholesale desertion of
slaves, "more than twenty thousand slaves had deserted, many of
them artisans," according to Thucydides.
[30] Or, "the days of Decelea." Lit. "the incidents of Decelea."
[31] I.e. "of their working since mining began."
[32] Lit. "are just the same to-day as our forefathers recollected
them to be in their time."
[33] Or, "whether the tracts already explored or those not yet opened
are the more prolific."
It is a difficulty, but it is one on which, I believe, I can offer
some practical advice. I have a plan to suggest which will reduce the
risk of opening up new cuttings to a minimum.[34]
[34] Or, "I have a plan to make the opening of new cuttings as safe as
possible."
The citizens of Athens are divided, as we all know, into ten tribes.
Let the state then assign to each of these ten tribes an equal number
of slaves, and let the tribes agree to associate their fortunes and
proceed to open new cuttings. What will happen? Any single tribe
hitting upon a productive lode will be the means of discovering what
is advantageous to all. Or, supposing two or three, or possibly the
half of them, hit upon a lode, clearly these several operations will
proportionally be more remunerative still. That the whole ten will
fail is not at all in accordance with what we should expect from the
history of the past. It is possible, of course, for private persons to
combine in the same way,[35] and share their fortunes and minimise
their risks. Nor need you apprehend, sirs, that a state mining
company, established on this principle, will prove a thorn in the
side[36] of the private owner, or the private owner prove injurious to
the state. But rather like allies who render each other stronger the
more they combine,[37] so in these silver mines, the greater number of
companies at work[38] the larger the riches they will discover and
disinter.[39]
[35] "To form similar joint-stock companies."
[36] See "Cyneg." v. 5.
[37] Or, "deriving strength from combination."
[38] Co-operators.
[39] Reading {ekphoresousi}, after Cobet.
This then is a statement, as far as I can make it clear, of the method
by which, with the proper state organisation, every Athenian may be
supplied with ample maintenance at the public expense. Possibly some
of you may be calculating that the capital[40] requisite will be
enormous. They may doubt if a sufficient sum will ever be subscribed
to meet all the needs. All I can say is, even so, do not dispond. It
is not as if it were necessary that every feature of the scheme should
be carried out at once, or else there is to be no advantage in it at
all. On the contrary, whatever number of houses are erected, or ships
are built, or slaves purchased, etc., these portions will begin to pay
at once. In fact, the bit-by-bit method of proceeding will be more
advantageous than a simultaneous carrying into effect of the whole
plan, to this extent: if we set about erecting buildings wholesale[41]
we shall make a more expensive and worse job of it than if we finish
them off gradually. Again, if we set about bidding for hundreds of
slaves at once we shall be forced to purchase an inferior type at a
higher cost. Whereas, if we proceed tentatively, as we find ourselves
able,[42] we can complete any well-devised attempt at our leisure,[43]
and, in case of any obvious failure, take warning and not repeat it.
Again, if everything were to be carried out at once, it is we, sirs,
who must make the whole provision at our expense.[44] Whereas, if part
were proceeded with and part stood over, the portion of revenue in
hand will help to furnish what is necessary to go on with. But to come
now to what every one probably will regard as a really grave danger,
lest the state may become possessed of an over large number of slaves,
with the result that the works will be overstocked. That again is an
apprehension which we may escape if we are careful not to put into the
works more hands from year to year than the works themselves demand.
Thus[45] I am persuaded that the easiest method of carrying out this
scheme, as a whole, is also the best. If, however, you are persuaded
that, owing to the extraordinary property taxes[46] to which you have
been subjected during the present war, you will not be equal to any
further contributions at present,[47] what you should do is this:[48]
during the current year resolve to carry on the financial
administration of the state within the limits of a sum equivalent to
that which your dues[49] realised before the peace. That done, you are
at liberty to take any surplus sum, whether directly traceable to the
peace itself, or to the more courteous treatment of our resident
aliens and traders, or to the growth of the imports and exports,
coincident with the collecting together of larger masses of human
beings, or to an augmentation of harbour[50] and market dues: this
surplus, I say, however derived, you should take and invest[51] so as
to bring in the greatest revenue.[52]
[40] Or, "sinking fund."
[41] {athrooi}--"in a body." It is a military phrase, I think. In
close order, as it were, not in detachments.
[42] "According to our ability," a favourite Socratic phrase.
[43] {authis}. See for this corrupt passage Zurborg, "Comm." p. 31. He
would insert, "and a little delay will not be prejudicial to our
interests, but rather the contrary," or to that effect, thus: {kai
authis an [anutoimen ou gar toiaute te anabole blaben genesthai
an] emin oiometha} "vel simile aliquid."
[44] Or, "it is we who must bear the whole burthen of the outlay."
[45] {outos}, "so far, unless I am mistaken, the easiest method is the
best."
[46] Or, "heavy contributions, subscriptions incidental to," but the
word {eisphoras} is technical. For the exhaustion of the treasury
see Dem. "Lept." 464; Grote, "H. G."xi. 326.
[47] Or, "you will not be able to subscribe a single penny more."
[48] {umeis de}, you are masters of the situation. It lies with you to
carry on, etc.; {dioikeite} is of course imperative.
[49] Or, "taxes."
[50] Reading, after Zurborg, {dia ta ellimenia}. Or, if the vulg. {dia
en limeni}, transl. "an augmentation of market dues at Piraeus."
[51] I.e. as fixed capital, or, "you should expend on plant."
[52] Or, adopting Zurborg's emend, {os an pleista eggignetai}, transl.
"for the purposes of the present scheme as far as it may be
available."
Again, if there is an apprehension on the part of any that the whole
scheme[53] will crumble into nothing on the first outbreak of war, I
would only beg these alarmists to note that, under the condition of
things which we propose to bring about, war will have more terrors for
the attacking party than for this state. Since what possession I
should like to know can be more serviceable for war than that of men?
Think of the many ships which they will be capable of manning on
public service. Think of the number who will serve on land as infantry
[in the public service] and will bear hard upon the enemy. Only we
must treat them with courtesy.[54] For myself, my calculation is, that
even in the event of war we shall be quite able to keep a firm hold of
the silver mines. I may take it, we have in the neighbourhood of the
mines certain fortresses--one on the southern slope in
Anaphlystus;[55] and we have another on the northern side in Thoricus,
the two being about seven and a half miles[56] apart. Suppose then a
third breastwork were to be placed between these, on the highest point
of Besa, that would enable the operatives to collect into one out of
all the fortresses, and at the first perception of a hostile movement
it would only be a short distance for each to retire into safety.[57]
In the event of an enemy advancing in large numbers they might
certainly make off with whatever corn or wine or cattle they found
outside. But even if they did get hold of the silver ore, it would be
little better to them than a heap of stones.[58] But how is an enemy
ever to march upon the mines in force? The nearest state, Megara, is
distant, I take it, a good deal over sixty miles;[59] and the next
closest, Thebes, a good deal nearer seventy.[60] Supposing then an
enemy to advance from some such point to attack the mines, he cannot
avoid passing Athens; and presuming his force to be small, we may
expect him to be annihilated by our cavalry and frontier police.[61] I
say, presuming his force to be small, since to march with anything
like a large force, and thereby leave his own territory denuded of
troops, would be a startling achievement. Why, the fortified city of
Athens will be much closer the states of the attacking parties than
they themselves will be by the time they have got to the mines. But,
for the sake of argument, let us suppose an enemy to have arrived in
the neighbourhood of Laurium; how is he going to stop there without
provisions? To go out in search of supplies with a detachment of his
force would imply risk, both for the foraging party and for those who
have to do the fighting;[62] whilst, if they are driven to do so in
force each time, they may call themselves besiegers, but they will be
practically in a state of siege themselves.
[53] Or, "the proposed organisation."
[54] See ch. ii. above.
[55] Or, reading {en te pros mesembrian thalatte}, "on the southern
Sea." For Anaphlystus see "Hell." I. ii. 1; "Mem." III. v. 25. It
was Eubulus's deme, the leading statesman at this date.
[56] Lit. "60 stades."
[57] The passage {sunekoi t an erga}, etc., is probably corrupt. {Ta
erga} seems to mean "the operatives;" cf. Latin "operae." Others
take it of "the works themselves." Possibly it may refer to
military works connecting the three fortresses named. "There might
be a system of converging (works or) lines drawn to a single point
from all the fortresses, and at the first sign of any thing
hostile," etc.
[58] I.e. "they might as well try to carry off so many tons of stone."
[59] Lit. "500 stades."
[60] Lit. "more than 600 stades."
[61] The {peripoloi}, or horse patrol to guard the frontier. See Thuc.
iv. 57, viii. 92; Arist. "Birds,"ii. 76. Young Athenians between
eighteen and twenty were eligible for the service.
[62] Or, "for the very object of the contest." The construction is in
any case unusual. {peri on agonizontai} = {peri touton oi}.
Zurborg suggests {peri ton agonizomenon}.
But it is not the income[63] derived from the slaves alone to which we
look to help the state towards the effective maintenance of her
citizens, but with the growth and concentration of a thick population
in the mining district various sources of revenue will accrue, whether
from the market at Sunium, or from the various state buildings in
connection with the silver mines, from furnaces and all the rest.
Since we must expect a thickly populated city to spring up here, if
organised in the way proposed, and plots of land will become as
valuable to owners out there as they are to those who possess them in
the neighbourhood of the capital.
[63] I adopt Zurborg's correction, {prosphora} for {eisphora}, as
obviously right. See above, iv. 23.
If, at this point, I may assume my proposals to have been carried into
effect, I think I can promise, not only that our city shall be
relieved from a financial strain, but that she shall make a great
stride in orderliness and in tactical organisation, she shall grow in
martial spirit and readiness for war. I anticipate that those who are
under orders to go through gymnastic training will devote themselves
with a new zeal to the details of the training school, now that they
will receive a larger maintenance whilst[64] under the orders of the
trainer in the torch race. So again those on garrison duty in the
various fortresses, those enrolled as peltasts, or again as frontier
police to protect the rural districts, one and all will carry out
their respective duties more ardently when the maintenance[64]
appropriate to these several functions is duly forthcoming.
[64] I follow Zurborg in omitting {e}. If {e} is to stand, transl.
"than they get whilst supplied by the gymnasiarch in the torch
race," or "whilst exercising the office of gymnasiarchs
themselves." See "Pol. Ath." i. 13.
[65] "State aid."
V
But now, if it is evident that, in order to get the full benefit of
all these sources of revenue,[1] peace is an indispensable condition--
if that is plain, I say, the question suggests itself, would it not be
worth while to appoint a board to act as guardians of peace? Since no
doubt the election of such a magistracy would enhance the charm of
this city in the eyes of the whole world, and add largely to the
number of our visitors. But if any one is disposed to take the view,
that by adopting a persistent peace policy,[2] this city will be shorn
of her power, that her glory will dwindle and her good name be
forgotten throughout the length and breadth of Hellas, the view so
taken by our friends here[3] is in my poor judgment somewhat
unreasonable. For they are surely the happy states, they, in popular
language, are most fortune-favoured, which endure in peace the longest
season. And of all states Athens is pre-eminently adapted by nature to
flourish and wax strong in peace. The while she abides in peace she
cannot fail to exercise an attractive force on all. From the mariner
and the merchant upwards, all seek her, flocking they come; the
wealthy dealers in corn and wine[4] and oil, the owner of many cattle.
And not these only, but the man who depends upon his wits, whose skill
it is to do business and make gain out of money[5] and its employment.
And here another crowd, artificers of all sorts, artists and artisans,
professors of wisdom,[6] philosophers, and poets, with those who
exhibit and popularise their works.[7] And next a new train of
pleasure-seekers, eager to feast on everything sacred or secular,[8]
which may captivate and charm eye and ear. Or once again, where are
all those who seek to effect a rapid sale or purchase of a thousand
commodities, to find what they want, if not at Athens?
[1] Or, "to set these several sources of revenue flowing in full
stream."
[2] Cf. "a policy of peace at any price," or, "by persisting for any
length of time in the enjoyment of peace."
[3] {kai outoi ge}. The speaker waves his hand to the quarter of the
house where the anti-peace party is seated.
[4] After Zurborg, I omit {oukh oi eduoinoi}.
[5] Reading {kai ap arguriou}, with Zurborg.
[6] Lit. "Sophists." See Grote, "H. G." viii. lxvii. note, p. 497.
[7] E.g. chorus-trainers, musicians, grammarians, rhapsodists, and
actors.
[8] Or, "sacred and profane."
But if there is no desire to gainsay these views--only that certain
people, in their wish to recover that headship[9] which was once the
pride of our city, are persuaded that the accomplishment of their
hopes is to be found, not in peace but in war, I beg them to reflect
on some matters of history, and to begin at the beginning,[10] the
Median war. Was it by high-handed violence, or as benefactors of the
Hellenes, that we obtained the headship of the naval forces, and the
trusteeship of the treasury of Hellas?[11] Again, when through the too
cruel exercise of her presidency, as men thought, Athens was deprived
of her empire, is it not the case that even in those days,[12] as soon
as we held aloof from injustice we were once more reinstated by the
islanders, of their own free will, as presidents of the naval force?
Nay, did not the very Thebans, in return for certain benefits, grant
to us Athenians to exercise leadership over them?[13] And at another
date the Lacedaemonans suffered us Athenians to arrange the terms of
hegemony[14] at our discretion, not as driven to such submission, but
in requital of kindly treatment. And to-day, owing to the chaos[15]
which reigns in Hellas, if I mistake not, an opportunity has fallen to
this city of winning back our fellow-Hellenes without pain or peril or
expense of any sort. It is given to us to try and harmonise states
which are at war with one another: it is given to us to reconcile the
differences of rival factions within those states themselves, wherever
existing.
[9] Lit. "her hegemony for the city," B.C. 476.
[10] "And first of all."
[11] See Thuc. i. 96.
[12] B.C. 378. Second confederacy of Delos. See Grote, "H. G." x. 152.
[13] B.C. 375. Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 62; Grote, "H. G." x. 139; Isocr.
"Or." xiv. 20; Diod. Sic. xv. 29.
[14] B.C. 369 (al. B.C. 368). Cf. "Hell." VII. i. 14.
[15] See "Hell."VII. v. 27.
Make it but evident that we are minded to preserve the
independence[16] of the Delphic shrine in its primitive integrity, not
by joining in any war but by the moral force of embassies throughout
the length and breadth of Hellas--and I for one shall not be
astonished if you find our brother Hellenes of one sentiment and eager
under seal of solemn oaths[17] to proceed against those, whoever they
may be, who shall seek[18] to step into the place vacated by the
Phocians and to occupy the sacred shrine. Make it but evident that you
intend to establish a general peace by land and sea, and, if I mistake
not, your efforts will find a response in the hearts of all. There is
no man but will pray for the salvation of Athens next to that of his
own fatherland.
[16] "Autonomy."
[17] See Thuc. v. 18, clause 2 of the Treaty of Peace, B.C. 422-421.
[18] Reading, with Zurborg, {peironto}. Or, if the vulgate
{epeironto}, transl. "against those who sought to step."
Again, is any one persuaded that, looking solely to riches and money-
making, the state may find war more profitable than peace? If so, I
cannot conceive a better method to decide that question than to allow
the mind to revert[19] to the past history of the state and to note
well the sequence of events. He will discover that in times long gone
by during a period of peace vast wealth was stored up in the
acropolis, the whole of which was lavishly expended during a
subsequent period of war. He will perceive, if he examines closely,
that even at the present time we are suffering from its ill effects.
Countless sources of revenue have failed, or if they have still flowed
in, been lavishly expended on a multiplicity of things. Whereas,[20]
now that peace is established by sea, our revenues have expanded and
the citizens of Athens have it in their power to turn these to account
as they like best.