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[3] "As in a mirror, or a picture."
Crit. Yes, Socrates, and is not the reason simply that in the first
case everything is thrown down where it chanced, whereas those others
have everything arranged, each in its appointed place?
Quite right (he answered), and the phrase implies that everything is
orderly arranged, not in the first chance place, but in that to which
it naturally belongs.
Crit. Yes, the case is to the point, I think, and does involve another
economic principle.
Soc. What, then, if I exhibit to you a third contrast, which bears on
the condition of domestic slaves? On the one side you shall see them
fettered hard and fast, as I may say, and yet for ever breaking their
chains and running away. On the other side the slaves are loosed, and
free to move, but for all that, they choose to work, it seems; they
are constant to their masters. I think you will admit that I here
point out another function of economy[4] worth noting.
[4] Or, "economical result."
Crit. I do indeed--a feature most noteworthy.
Soc. Or take, again, the instance of two farmers engaged in
cultivating farms[5] as like as possible. The one had never done
asserting that agriculture has been his ruin, and is in the depth of
despair; the other has all he needs in abundance and of the best, and
how acquired?--by this same agriculture.
[5] {georgias}. See Hartman, "An. Xen." p. 193. Hold. cf. Plat.
"Laws," 806 E. Isocr. "Areop." 32.
Yes (Critobulus answered), to be sure; perhaps[6] the former spends
both toil and money not simply on what he needs, but on things which
cause an injury to house alike and owner.
[6] Or, "like enough in the one case the money and pains are spent,"
etc.
Soc. That is a possible case, no doubt, but it is not the one that I
refer to; I mean people pretending they are farmers, and yet they have
not a penny to expend on the real needs of their business.
Crit. And pray, what may be the reason of that, Socrates?
Soc. You shall come with me, and see these people also; and as you
contemplate the scene, I presume you will lay to heart the lesson.
Crit. I will, if possibly I can, I promise you.
Soc. Yes, and while you contemplate, you must make trial of yourself
and see if you have wit to understand. At present, I will bear you
witness that if it is to go and see a party of players performing in a
comedy, you will get up at cock-crow, and come trudging a long way,
and ply me volubly with reasons why I should accompany you to see the
play. But you have never once invited me to come and witness such an
incident as those we were speaking of just now.
Crit. And so I seem to you ridiculous?[7]
[7] Or, "a comic character in the performance." Soc. "Not so comic as
you must appear to yourself (i.e. with your keen sense of the
ludicrous)."
Soc. Far more ridiculous to yourself, I warrant. But now let me point
out to you another contrast: between certain people whose dealing with
horses has brought them to the brink of poverty, and certain others
who have found in the same pursuit the road to affluence,[8] and have
a right besides to plume themselves upon their gains.[9]
[8] Or, "who have not only attained to affluence by the same pursuit,
but can hold their heads high, and may well pride themselves on
their thrift."
[9] Cf. Hom. "Il." xii. 114, {ippoisin kai okhesphin agallomenos}, et
passim; "Hiero," viii. 5; "Anab." II. vi. 26.
Crit. Well, then, I may tell you, I see and know both characters as
well as you do; but I do not find myself a whit the more included
among those who gain.
Soc. Because you look at them just as you might at the actors in a
tragedy or comedy, and with the same intent--your object being to
delight the ear and charm the eye, but not, I take it, to become
yourself a poet. And there you are right enough, no doubt, since you
have no desire to become a playright. But, when circumstances compel
you to concern yourself with horsemanship, does it not seem to you a
little foolish not to consider how you are to escape being a mere
amateur in the matter, especially as the same creatures which are good
for use are profitable for sale?
Crit. So you wish me to set up as a breeder of young horses,[10] do
you, Socrates?
[10] See "Horsemanship," ii. 1.
Soc. Not so, no more than I would recommend you to purchase lads and
train them up from boyhood as farm-labourers. But in my opinion there
is a certain happy moment of growth whuch must be seized, alike in man
and horse, rich in present service and in future promise. In further
illustration, I can show you how some men treat their wedded wives in
such a way that they find in them true helpmates to the joint increase
of their estate, while others treat them in a way to bring upon
themselves wholesale disaster.[11]
[11] Reading {e os pleista}, al. {e oi pleistoi} = "to bring about
disaster in most cases."
Crit. Ought the husband or the wife to bear the blame of that?
Soc. If it goes ill with the sheep we blame the shepherd, as a rule,
or if a horse shows vice we throw the blame in general upon the rider.
But in the case of women, supposing the wife to have received
instruction from her husband and yet she delights in wrong-doing,[12]
it may be that the wife is justly held to blame; but supposing he has
never tried to teach her the first principles of "fair and noble"
conduct,[13] and finds her quite an ignoramus[14] in these matters,
surely the husband will be justly held to blame. But come now (he
added), we are all friends here; make a clean breast of it, and tell
us, Critobulus, the plain unvarnished truth: Is there an one to whom
you are more in the habit of entrusting matters of importance than to
your wife?
[12] Cf. "Horsemanship," vi. 5, of a horse "to show vice."
[13] Or, "things beautiful and of good report."
[14] Al. "has treated her as a dunce, devoid of this high knowledge."
Crit. There is no one.
Soc. And is there any one with whom you are less in the habit of
conversing than with your wife?
Crit. Not many, I am forced to admit.
Soc. And when you married her she was quite young, a mere girl--at an
age when, as far as seeing and hearing go, she had the smallest
acquaintance with the outer world?
Crit. Certainly.
Soc. Then would it not be more astonishing that she should have real
knowledge how to speak and act than that she should go altogether
astray?
Crit. But let me ask you a question, Socrates: have those happy
husbands, you tell us of, who are blessed with good wives educated
them themselves?
Soc. There is nothing like investigation. I will introduce you to
Aspasia,[15] who will explain these matters to you in a far more
scientific way than I can. My belief is that a good wife, being as she
is the partner in a common estate, must needs be her husband's
counterpoise and counterpart for good; since, if it is through the
transactions of the husband, as a rule, that goods of all sorts find
their way into the house, yet it is by means of the wife's economy and
thrift that the greater part of the expenditure is checked, and on the
successful issue or the mishandling of the same depends the increase
or impoverishment of a whole estate. And so with regard to the
remaining arts and sciences, I think I can point out to you the ablest
performers in each case, if you feel you have any further need of
help.[16]
[15] Aspasia. See "Mem." II. vi. 36.
[16] Al. "there are successful performers in each who will be happy to
illustrate any point in which you think you need," etc.
IV
But why need you illustrate all the sciences, Socrates? (Critobulus
asked): it would not be very easy to discover efficient craftsmen of
all the arts, and quite impossible to become skilled in all one's
self. So, please, confine yourself to the nobler branches of knowledge
as men regard them, such as it will best befit me to pursue with
devotion; be so good as to point me out these and their performers,
and, above all, contribute as far as in you lies the aid of your own
personal instruction.
Soc. A good suggestion, Critobulus, for the base mechanic arts, so
called, have got a bad name; and what is more, are held in ill repute
by civilised communities, and not unreasonably; seeing they are the
ruin of the bodies of all concerned in them, workers and overseers
alike, who are forced to remain in sitting postures and to hug the
loom, or else to crouch whole days confronting a furnace. Hand in
hand with physical enervation follows apace enfeeblement of soul:
while the demand which these base mechanic arts makes on the time of
those employed in them leaves them no leisure to devote to the claims
of friendship and the state. How can such folk be other than sorry
friends and ill defenders of the fatherland? So much so that in some
states, especially those reputed to be warlike, no citizen[1] is
allowed to exercise any mechanical craft at all.
[1] "In the strict sense," e.g. the Spartiates in Sparta. See "Pol.
Lac." vii.; Newman, op. cit. i. 99, 103 foll.
Crit. Then which are the arts you would counsel us to engage in?
Soc. Well, we shall not be ashamed, I hope, to imitate the kings of
Persia?[2] That monarch, it is said, regards amongst the noblest and
most necessary pursuits two in particular, which are the arts of
husbandry and war, and in these two he takes the strongest interest.
[2] "It won't make us blush actually to take a leaf out of the great
king's book." As to the Greek text at this point see the
commentators, and also a note by Mr. H. Richers in the "Classical
Review," x. 102.
What! (Critobulus exclaimed); do you, Socrates, really believe that
the king of Persia pays a personal regard to husbandry, along with all
his other cares?
Soc. We have only to investigate the matter, Critobulus, and I daresay
we shall discover whether this is so or not. We are agreed that he
takes strong interest in military matters; since, however numerous the
tributary nations, there is a governor to each, and every governor has
orders from the king what number of cavalry, archers, slingers and
targeteers[3] it is his business to support, as adequate to control
the subject population, or in case of hostile attack to defend the
country. Apart from these the king keeps garrisons in all the
citadels. The actual support of these devolves upon the governor, to
whom the duty is assigned. The king himself meanwhile conducts the
annual inspection and review of troops, both mercenary and other, that
have orders to be under arms. These all are simultaneously assembled
(with the exception of the garrisons of citadels) at the mustering
ground,[4] so named. That portion of the army within access of the
royal residence the king reviews in person; the remainder, living in
remoter districts of the empire, he inspects by proxy, sending certain
trusty representatives.[5] Wherever the commandants of garrisons, the
captains of thousands, and the satraps[6] are seen to have their
appointed members complete, and at the same time shall present their
troops equipped with horse and arms in thorough efficiency, these
officers the king delights to honour, and showers gifts upon them
largely. But as to those officers whom he finds either to have
neglected their garrisons, or to have made private gain of their
position, these he heavily chastises, deposing them from office, and
appointing other superintendents[7] in their stead. Such conduct, I
think we may say, indisputably proves the interest which he takes in
matters military.
[3] Or, Gerrophoroi, "wicker-shield bearers."
[4] Or, "rendezvous"; "the 'Champ de Mars' for the nonce." Cf.
"Cyrop." VI. ii. 11.
[5] Lit. "he sends some of the faithful to inspect." Cf. our "trusty
and well-beloved."
[6] See, for the system, Herod. iii. 89 foll.; "Cyrop." VIII. vi. 11.
[7] Or, as we say, "inspecting officers." Cf. "Cyrop." VIII. i. 9.
Further than this, by means of a royal progress through the country,
he has an opportunity of inspecting personally some portion of his
territory, and again of visiting the remainder in proxy as above by
trusty representatives; and wheresoever he perceives that any of his
governors can present to him a district thickly populated, and the
soil in a state of active cultivation, full of trees and fruits, its
natural products, to such officers he adds other territory, adorning
them with gifts and distinguishing them by seats of honour. But those
officers whose land he sees lying idle and with but few inhabitants,
owing either to the harshness of their government, their insolence, or
their neglect, he punishes, and making them to cease from their office
he appoints other rulers in their place. . . . Does not this conduct
indicate at least as great an anxiety to promote the active
cultivation of the land by its inhabitants as to provide for its
defence by military occupation?[8]
[8] Lit. "by those who guard and garrison it."
Moreover, the governors appointed to preside over these two
departments of state are not one and the same. But one class governs
the inhabitants proper including the workers of the soil, and collects
the tribute from them, another is in command of the armed garrisons.
If the commandant[9] protects the country insufficiently, the civil
governor of the population, who is in charge also of the productive
works, lodges accusation against the commandant to the effect that the
inhabitants are prevented working through deficiency of protection. Or
if again, in spite of peace being secured to the works of the land by
the military governor, the civil authority still presents a territory
sparse in population and untilled, it is the commandant's turn to
accuse the civil ruler. For you may take it as a rule, a population
tilling their territory badly will fail to support their garrisons and
be quite unequal to paying their tribute. Where a satrap is appointed
he has charge of both departments.[10]
[9] Or, "garrison commandant." Lit. "Phrourarch."
[10] The passage reads like a gloss. See about the Satrap, "Hell."
III. i. 10; "Cyrop." VIII. vi. 1; "Anab." I. ix. 29 foll.
Thereupon Critobulus: Well, Socrates (said he), if such is his
conduct, I admit that the great king does pay attention to agriculture
no less than to military affairs.
And besides all this (proceeded Socrates), nowhere among the various
countries which he inhabits or visits does he fail to make it his
first care that there shall be orchards and gardens, parks and
"paradises," as they are called, full of all fair and noble products
which the earth brings forth; and within these chiefly he spends his
days, when the season of the year permits.
Crit. To be sure, Socrates, it is a natural and necessary conclusion
that when the king himself spends so large a portion of his time
there, his paradises should be furnished to perfection with trees and
all else beautiful that earth brings forth.
Soc. And some say, Critobulus, that when the king gives gifts, he
summons in the first place those who have shown themselves brave
warriors, since all the ploughing in the world were but small gain in
the absence of those who should protect the fields; and next to these
he summons those who have stocked their countries best and rendered
them productive, on the principle that but for the tillers of the soil
the warriors themselves could scarcely live. And there is a tale told
of Cyrus, the most famous prince, I need not tell you, who ever wore a
crown,[11] how on one occasion he said to those who had been called to
receive the gifts, "it were no injustice, if he himself received the
gifts due to warriors and tillers of the soil alike," for "did he not
carry off the palm in stocking the country and also in protecting the
goods with which it had been stocked?"
[11] Lit. "the most glorious king that ever lived." The remark would
seem to apply better to Cyrus the Great. Nitsche and others regard
these SS. 18, 19 as interpolated. See Schenkl ad loc.
Crit. Which clearly shows, Socrates, if the tale be true, that this
same Cyrus took as great a pride in fostering the productive energies
of his country and stocking it with good things, as in his reputation
as a warrior.
Soc. Why, yes indeed, had Cyrus lived, I have no doubt he would have
proved the best of rulers, and in support of this belief, apart from
other testimony amply furnished by his life, witness what happened
when he marched to do battle for the soveriegnty of Persia with his
brother. Not one man, it is said,[12] deserted from Cyrus to the king,
but from the king to Cyrus tens of thousands. And this also I deem a
great testimony to a ruler's worth, that his followers follow him of
their own free will, and when the moment of danger comes refuse to
part from him.[13] Now this was the case with Cyrus. His friends not
only fought their battles side by side with him while he lived, but
when he died they too died battling around his dead body, one and all,
excepting only Ariaeus, who was absent at his post on the left wing of
the army.[14] But there is another tale of this same Cyrus in
connection with Lysander, who himself narrated it on one occasion to a
friend of his in Megara.[15]
[12] Cf. "Anab." I. ix. 29 foll.
[13] Cf. "Hiero," xi. 12, and our author passim.
[14] See "Anab." ib. 31.
[15] Possibly to Xenophon himself {who may have met Lysander on his
way back after the events of the "Anabasis," and implying this
dialogue is concocted, since Socrates died before Xenophon
returned to Athens, if he did return at that period.}
Lysander, it seems, had gone with presents sent by the Allies to
Cyrus, who entertained him, and amongst other marks of courtesy showed
him his "paradise" at Sardis.[16] Lysander was astonished at the
beauty of the trees within, all planted[17] at equal intervals, the
long straight rows of waving branches, the perfect regularity, the
rectangular[18] symmetry of the whole, and the many sweet scents which
hung about them as they paced the park. In admiration he exclaimed to
Cyrus: "All this beauty is marvellous enough, but what astonishes me
still more is the talent of the artificer who mapped out and arranged
for you the several parts of this fair scene."[19] Cyrus was pleased
by the remark, and said: "Know then, Lysander, it is I who measured
and arranged it all. Some of the trees," he added, "I planted with my
own hands." Then Lysander, regarding earnestly the speaker, when he
saw the beauty of his apparel and perceived its fragrance, the
splendour[20] also of the necklaces and armlets, and other ornaments
which he wore, exclaimed: "What say you, Cyrus? did you with your own
hands plant some of these trees?" whereat the other: "Does that
surprise you, Lysander? I swear to you by Mithres,[21] when in
ordinary health I never dream of sitting down to supper without first
practising some exercise of war or husbandry in the sweat of my brow,
or venturing some strife of honour, as suits my mood." "On hearing
this," said Lysander to his friend, "I could not help seizing him by
the hand and exclaiming, 'Cyrus, you have indeed good right to be a
happy man,[22] since you are happy in being a good man.'"[23]
[16] See "Hell." I. v. 1.
[17] Reading {oi' isou pephuteumena}, or if {ta pephuteumena}, transl.
"the various plants ranged."
[18] Cf. Dion. Hal. "de Comp." p. 170; Cic. "de Senect." S. 59.
[19] Lit. "of these" {deiktikos}, i.e. pointing to the various
beauties of the scenery.
[20] Reading {to kallos}.
[21] The Persian "Sun-God." See "Cyrop." VII. v. 53; Strab. xv. 3. 13.
[22] Or, "fortunate."
[23] Or, "you are a good man, and thereby fortunate."
V
All this I relate to you (continued Socrates) to show you that quite
high and mighty[1] people find it hard to hold aloof from
agrictulture, devotion to which art would seem to be thrice blest,
combining as it does a certain sense of luxury with the satisfaction
of an improved estate, and such a training of physical energies as
shall fit a man to play a free man's part.[2] Earth, in the first
place, freely offers to those that labour all things necessary to the
life of man; and, as if that were not enough, makes further
contribution of a thousand luxuries.[3] It is she who supplies with
sweetest scent and fairest show all things wherewith to adorn the
altars and statues of the gods, or deck man's person. It is to her we
owe our many delicacies of flesh or fowl or vegetable growth;[4] since
with the tillage of the soil is closely linked the art of breeding
sheep and cattle, whereby we mortals may offer sacrifices well
pleasing to the gods, and satisfy our personal needs withal.
[1] Lit. "Not even the most blessed of mankind can abstain from." See
Plat. "Rep." 344 B, "The superlatively best and well-to-do."
[2] Lit. "Devotion to it would seem to be at once a kind of luxury, an
increase of estate, a training of the bodily parts, so that a man
is able to perform all that a free man should."
[3] Al. "and further, to the maintenance of life she adds the sources
of pleasure in life."
[4] Lit. "she bears these and rears those."
And albeit she, good cateress, pours out her blessings upon us in
abundance, yet she suffers not her gifts to be received effeminately,
but inures her pensioners to suffer glady summer's heat and winter's
cold. Those that labour with their hands, the actual delvers of the
soil, she trains in a wrestling school of her own, adding strength to
strength; whilst those others whose devotion is confined to the
overseeing eye and to studious thought, she makes more manly, rousing
them with cock-crow, and compelling them to be up and doing in many a
long day's march.[5] Since, whether in city or afield, with the
shifting seasons each necessary labour has its hour of performance.[6]
[5] See "Hellenica Essays," p. 341.
[6] Lit. "each most necessary operation must ever be in season."
Or to turn to another side. Suppose it to be a man's ambition to aid
his city as a trooper mounted on a charger of his own: why not combine
the rearing of horses with other stock? it is the farmer's chance.[7]
Or would your citizen serve on foot? It is husbandry that shall give
him robustness of body. Or if we turn to the toil-loving fascination
of the chase,[8] here once more earth adds incitement, as well as
furnishing facility of sustenance for the dogs as by nurturing a
foster brood of wild animals. And if horses and dogs derive benefit
from this art of husbandry, they in turn requite the boon through
service rendered to the farm. The horse carries his best of friends,
the careful master, betimes to the scene of labour and devotion, and
enables him to leave it late. The dog keeps off the depredations of
wild animals from fruits and flocks, and creates security in the
solitary place.
[7] Lit. "farming is best adapted to rearing horses along with other
produce."
[8] Lit. "to labour willingly and earnestly at hunting earth helps to
incite us somewhat."
Earth, too, adds stimulus in war-time to earth's tillers; she pricks
them on to aid the country under arms, and this she does by fostering
her fruits in open field, the prize of valour for the mightiest.[9]
For this also is the art athletic, this of husbandry; as thereby men
are fitted to run, and hurl the spear, and leap with the best.[10]
[9] Cf. "Hipparch," viii. 8.
[10] Cf. "Hunting," xii. 1 foll.
This, too, is that kindliest of arts which makes requital tenfold in
kind for every work of the labourer.[11] She is the sweet mistress
who, with smile of welcome and outstretched hand, greets the approach
of her devoted one, seeming to say, Take from me all thy heart's
desire. She is the generous hostess; she keeps open house for the
stranger.[12] For where else, save in some happy rural seat of her
devising, shall a man more cheerily cherish content in winter, with
bubbling bath and blazing fire? or where, save afield, in summer rest
more sweetly,lulled by babbling streams, soft airs, and tender
shades?[13]
[11] Lit. "What art makes an ampler return for their labour to those
who work for her? What art more sweetly welcomes him that is
devoted to her?"
[12] Lit. "What art welcomes the stranger with greater prodigality?"
[13] See "Hellenica Essays," p. 380; and as still more to the point,
Cowley's Essays: "Of Agriculture," passim.
Her high prerogative it is to offer fitting first-fruits to high
heaven, hers to furnish forth the overflowing festal board.[14] Hers
is a kindly presence in the household. She is the good wife's
favourite, the children long for her, she waves her hand winningly to
the master's friends.
[14] Or, "to appoint the festal board most bounteously."
For myself, I marvel greatly if it has ever fallen to the lot of
freeborn man to own a choicer possesion, or to discover an occupation
more seductive, or of wider usefulness in life than this.
But, furthermore, earth of her own will[15] gives lessons in justice
and uprightness to all who can understand her meaning, since the
nobler the service of devotion rendered, the ampler the riches of her
recompense.[16] One day, perchance, these pupils of hers, whose
conversation in past times was in husbandry,[17] shall, by reason of
the multitude of invading armies, be ousted from their labours. The
work of their hands may indeed be snatched from them, but they were
brought up in stout and manly fashion. They stand, each one of them,
in body and soul equipped; and, save God himself shall hinder them,
they will march into the territory of those their human hinderers, and
take from them the wherewithal to support their lives. Since often
enough in war it is surer and safer to quest for food with sword and
buckler than with all the instruments of husbandry.
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