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[9] {katatribenai}, "worn out." See "Mem." III. iv. 1; IV. vii. 5. Al.
"bored to death."
[10] Or, "before the products of his pupilage are worth his keep."
[11] Or, "critical and crucial."
The proem[12] to the speech is beautiful at any rate (I answered), but
hardly calculated to divert the hearer from the previous question. A
thing so easy to be learnt, you say? then, if so, do you be all the
readier for that reason to explain its details to me. No shame on you
who teach, to teach these easy matters; but for me to lack the
knowledge of them, and most of all if highly useful to the learner,
worse than shame, a scandal.
[12] Or, "the prelude to the piece."
XVI
Isch. First then, Socrates, I wish to demonstrate to you that what is
called[1] "the intricate variety in husbandry"[2] presents no
difficulty. I use a phrase of those who, whatever the nicety with
which they treat the art in theory,[3] have but the faintest practical
experience of tillage. What they assert is, that "he who would rightly
till the soil must first be made acquainted with the nature of the
earth."
[1] "They term"; in reference to the author of some treatise.
[2] Or, "the riddling subtlety of tillage." See "Mem." II. iii. 10;
Plat. "Symp." 182 B; "Phileb." 53 E.
[3] Theophr. "De Caus." ii. 4, 12, mentions Leophanes amongst other
writers on agriculture preceding himself.
And they are surely right in their assertion (I replied); for he who
does not know what the soil is capable of bearing, can hardly know, I
fancy, what he has to plant or what to sow.
But he has only to look at his neighbour's land (he answered), at his
crops and trees, in order to learn what the soil can bear and what it
cannot.[4] After which discovery, it is ill work fighting against
heaven. Certainly not by dint of sowing and planting what he himself
desires will he meet the needs of life more fully than by planting and
sowing what the earth herself rejoices to bear and nourish on her
bosom. Or if, as well may be the case, through the idleness of those
who occupy it, the land itself cannot display its native faculty,[5]
it is often possible to derive a truer notion from some neighbouring
district that ever you will learn about it from your neighbour's
lips.[6] Nay, even though the earth lie waste and barren, it may still
declare its nature; since a soil productive of beautiful wild fruits
can by careful tending be made to yield fruits of the cultivated kind
as beautiful. And on this wise, he who has the barest knowledge[7] of
the art of tillage can still discern the nature of the soil.
[4] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." i. 53; iv. 109. According to the
commentator Servius, the poet drew largely upon Xenophon's
treatise.
[5] Or, "cannot prove its natural aptitude."
[6] Or, "from a neighbouring mortal."
[7] Or, "a mere empiric in the art of husbandry."
Thank you (I said), Ischomachus, my courage needs no further fanning
upon that score. I am bold enough now to believe that no one need
abstain from agriculture for fear he will not recognise the nature of
the soil. Indeed, I now recall to mind a fact concerning fishermen,
how as they ply their business on the seas, not crawling lazily along,
nor bringing to, for prospect's sake, but in the act of scudding past
the flying farmsteads,[8] these brave mariners have only to set eyes
upon crops on land, and they will boldly pronounce opinion on the
nature of the soil itself, whether good or bad: this they blame and
that they praise. And these opinions for the most part coincide, I
notice, with the verdict of the skilful farmer as to quality of
soil.[9]
[8] Or, "the flying coastland, fields and farmyards."
[9] Lit. "And indeed the opinions they pronounce about 'a good soil'
mostly tally with the verdict of the expert farmer."
Isch. At what point shall I begin then, Socrates, to revive your
recollection[10] of the art of husbandry? since to explain to you the
processes employed in husbandry means the statement of a hundred
details which you know yourself full well already.
[10] Or, "begin recalling to your mind." See Plat. "Meno," for the
doctrine of Anamensis here apparently referred to.
Soc. The first thing I should like to learn, Ischomachus, I think, if
only as a point befitting a philosopher, is this: how to proceed and
how to work the soil, did I desire to extract the largest crops of
wheat and barley.
Isch. Good, then! you are aware that fallow must be broken up in
readiness[11] for sowing?
[11] Or, "ploughed up." Cf. Theophr. "Hist. Pl." iii. i. 6; Dion. Hal.
"Ant." x. 17.
Soc. Yes, I am aware of that.
Isch. Well then, supposing we begin to plough our land in winter?
Soc. It would not do. There would be too much mud.
Isch. Well then, what would you say to summer?
Soc. The soil will be too hard in summer for a plough and a pair of
oxen to break up.
Isch. It looks as if spring-time were the season to begin this work,
then? What do you say?
Soc. I say, one may expect the soil broken up at that season of the
year to crumble[12] best.
[12] {kheisthai} = laxari, dissolvi, to be most friable, to scatter
readily.
Isch. Yes, and grasses[13] turned over at that season, Socrates, serve
to supply the soil already with manure; while as they have not shed
their seed as yet, they cannot vegetate.[14] I am supposing that you
recognise a further fact: to form good land, a fallow must be clean
and clear of undergrowth and weeds,[15] and baked as much as possible
by exposure to the sun.[16]
[13] "Herbage," whether grass or other plants, "grass," "clover," etc;
Theophr. "Hist. Pl." i. 3. 1; Holden, "green crops."
[14] Lit. "and not as yet have shed their seed so as to spring into
blade."
[15] Or, "quitch."
[16] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." i. 65, coquat; ii. 260, excoquere. So
Lucr. vi. 962.
Soc. Yes, that is quite a proper state of things, I should imagine.
Isch. And to bring about this proper state of things, do you maintain
there can be any other better system than that of turning the soil
over as many times as possible in summer?
Soc. On the contrary, I know precisely that for either object, whether
to bring the weeds and quitch grass to the surface and to wither them
by scorching heat, or to expose the earth itself to the sun's baking
rays, there can be nothing better than to plough the soil up with a
pair of oxen during mid-day in midsummer.
Isch. And if a gang of men set to, to break and make this fallow with
the mattock, it is transparent that their business is to separate the
quitch grass from the soil and keep them parted?
Soc. Just so!--to throw the quitch grass down to wither on the
surface, and to turn the soil up, so that the crude earth may have its
turn of baking.
XVII
You see, Socrates (he said, continuing the conversation), we hold the
same opinion, both of us, concerning fallow.
Why, so it seems (I said)--the same opinion.
Isch. But when it comes to sowing, what is your opinion? Can you
suggest a better time for sowing than that which the long experience
of former generations, combined with that of men now living,
recognises as the best? See, so soon as autumn time has come, the
faces of all men everywhere turn with a wistful gaze towards high
heaven. "When will God moisten the earth," they ask, "and suffer men
to sow their seed?"[1]
[1] See Dr. Holden's interesting note at this point: "According to
Virgil ('Georg.' i. 215), spring is the time," etc.
Yes, Ischomachus (I answered), for all mankind must recognise the
precept:[2] "Sow not on dry soil" (if it can be avoided), being taught
wisdom doubtless by the heavy losses they must struggle with who sow
before God's bidding.
[2] Or, "it is a maxim held of all men."
Isch. It seems, then, you and I and all mankind hold one opinion on
these matters?
Soc. Why, yes; where God himself is teacher, such accord is apt to
follow; for instance, all men are agreed, it is better to wear thick
clothes[3] in winter, if so be they can. We light fires by general
consent, provided we have logs to burn.
[3] Or, "a thick cloak." See Rich, s.v. Pallium (= {imation}).
Yet as regards this very period of seed-time (he made answer),
Socrates, we find at once the widest difference of opinion upon one
point; as to which is better, the early, or the later,[4] or the
middle sowing?
[4] See Holden ad loc. Sauppe, "Lex. Xen.," notes {opsimos} as Ionic
and poet. See also Rutherford, "New Phryn." p. 124: "First met
with in a line of the 'Iliad' (ii. 325), {opsimos} does not appear
till late Greek except in the 'Oeconomicus,' a disputed work of
Xenophon."
Soc. Just so, for neither does God guide the year in one set fashion,
but irregularly, now suiting it to early sowing best, and now to
middle, and again to later.
Isch. But what, Socrates, is your opinion? Were it better for a man to
choose and turn to sole account a single sowing season, be it much he
has to sow or be it little? or would you have him begin his sowing
with the earliest season, and sow right on continuously until the
latest?
And I, in my turn, answered: I should think it best, Ischomachus, to
use indifferently the whole sowing season.[5] Far better[6] to have
enough of corn and meal at any moment and from year to year, than
first a superfluity and then perhaps a scant supply.
[5] Or, "share in the entire period of seed time." Zeune cf. "Geop."
ii. 14. 8; Mr. Ruskin's translators, "Bibl. Past." vol. i.; cf.
Eccles. xi. 6.
[6] Lit. "according to my tenet," {nomizo}.
Isch. Then, on this point also, Socrates, you hold a like opinion with
myself--the pupil to the teacher; and what is more, the pupil was the
first to give it utterance.
So far, so good! (I answered). Is there a subtle art in scattering the
seed?
Isch. Let us by all means investigate that point. That the seed must
be cast by hand, I presume you know yourself?
Soc. Yes, by the testimony of my eyes.[7]
[7] Lit. "Yes, for I have seen it done."
Isch. But as to actual scattering, some can scatter evenly, others
cannot.[8]
[8] Holden cf. W. Harte, "Essays on Husbandry," p. 210, 2nd ed., "The
main perfection of sowing is to disperse the seeds equally."
Soc. Does it not come to this, the hand needs practice (like the
fingers of a harp-player) to obey the will?
Isch. Precisely so, but now suppose the soil is light in one part and
heavy in another?
Soc. I do not follow; by "light" do you mean weak? and by "heavy"
strong?
Isch. Yes, that is what I mean. And the question which I put to you is
this: Would you allow both sorts of soil an equal share of seed? or
which the larger?[9]
[9] See Theophr. "Hist. Pl." viii. 6. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 275.
Holden cf. Adam Dickson, "Husbandry of the Ancients," vol. ii. 35.
33 f. (Edin. 1788), "Were the poor light land in Britain managed
after the manner of the Roman husbandry, it would certainly
require much less seed than under its present management."
Soc. The stronger the wine the larger the dose of water to be added, I
believe. The stronger, too, the man the heavier the weight we will lay
upon his back to carry: or if it is not porterage, but people to
support, there still my tenet holds: the broader and more powerful the
great man's shoulders, the more mouths I should assign to him to feed.
But perhaps a weak soil, like a lean pack-horse,[10] grows stronger
the more corn you pour into it. This I look to you to teach me.[11]
[10] Or, "lean cattle."
[11] Or, "Will you please answer me that question, teacher?"
With a laugh, he answered: Once more you are pleased to jest. Yet rest
assured of one thing, Socrates: if after you have put seed into the
ground, you will await the instant when, while earth is being richly
fed from heaven, the fresh green from the hidden seed first springs,
and take and turn it back again,[12] this sprouting germ will serve as
food for earth: as from manure an inborn strength will presently be
added to the soil. But if you suffer earth to feed the seed of corn
within it and to bring forth fruit in an endless round, at last[13] it
will be hard for the weakened soil to yield large corn crops, even as
a weak sow can hardly rear a large litter of fat pigs.
[12] "If you will plough the seedlings in again."
[13] {dia telous . . . es telos}, "continually . . . in the end." See
references in Holden's fifth edition.
Soc. I understand you to say, Ischomachus, that the weaker soil must
receive a scantier dose of seed?
Isch. Most decidedly I do, and you on your side, Socrates, I
understand, give your consent to this opinion in stating your belief
that the weaker the shoulders the lighter the burdens to be laid on
them.
Soc. But those hoers with their hoes, Ischomachus, tell me for what
reason you let them loose[14] upon the corn.
[14] Cf. "Revenues," iv. 5.
Isch. You know, I daresay, that in winter there are heavy rains?[15]
[15] "And melting snows, much water every way."
Soc. To be sure, I do.
Isch. We may suppose, then, that a portion of the corn is buried by
these floods beneath a coat of mud and slime, or else that the roots
are laid quite bare in places by the torrent. By reason of this same
drench, I take it, oftentimes an undergrowth of weeds springs up with
the corn and chokes it.
Soc. Yes, all these ills are likely enough to happen.
Isch. Are you not agreed the corn-fields sorely need relief at such a
season?
Soc. Assuredly.
Isch. Then what is to be done, in your opinion? How shall we aid the
stricken portion lying mud-bedabbled?
Soc. How better than by lifting up and lightening the soil?
Isch. Yes! and that other portion lying naked to the roots and
defenceless, how aid it?
Soc. Possibly by mounding up fresh earth about it.[16]
[16] "Scraping up a barrier of fresh earth about it."
Isch. And what when the weeds spring up together with the corn and
choke it? or when they rob and ruthlessly devour the corn's proper
sustenance, like unserviceable drones[17] that rob the working bees of
honey, pilfering the good food which they have made and stored away
with labour: what must we do?
[17] Cf. Shakesp. "Lazy yawning drones," "Henry V." I. ii. 204.
Soc. In good sooth, there can be nothing for it save to cut out the
noisome weed, even as drones are cleared out from the hive.
Isch. You agree there is some show of reason for letting in these
gangs of hoers?
Soc. Most true. And now I am turning over in my mind,[18] Ischomachus,
how grand a thing it is to introduce a simile or such like figure well
and aptly. No sooner had you mentioned the word "drones" than I was
filled with rage against those miserable weeds, far more than when you
merely spoke of weeds and undergrowth.
[18] Or, "I was just this moment pondering the virtue of a happy
illustration." Lit. "what a thing it is to introduce an 'image'
({tas eikonas}) well." See Plat. "Rep." 487 E, {de eikonos}, "in a
parable" (Jowett); "Phaed." 87 B, "a figure"; Aristoph. "Clouds,"
559; Plat. "Phaedr." 267 C; Aristot. "Rhet." III. iv. As to the
drones, J. J. Hartman, "An. X." 186, aptly cf. Aristoph. "Wasps,"
1114 f.
XVIII
But, not to interrupt you further (I continued), after sowing,
naturally we hope to come to reaping. If, therefore, you have anything
to say on that head also, pray proceed to teach me.
Isch. Yes, by all means, unless indeed you prove on this head also to
know as much yourself already as your teacher. To begin then: You know
that corn needs cutting?
Soc. To be sure, I know that much at any rate.
Isch. Well, then, the next point: in the act of cutting corn how will
you choose to stand? facing the way the wind blows,[1] or against the
wind?
[1] Lit. "(on the side) where the wind blows or right opposite."
Soc. Not against the wind, for my part. Eyes and hands must suffer, I
imagine, if one stood reaping face to face with husks and particles of
straw.[2]
[2] i.e. "with particles of straw and beards of corn blowing in one's
face."
Isch. And should you merely sever the ears at top, or reap close to
the ground?[3]
[3] See Holden ad loc.; Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, "Husbandry," 27 (ed.
1767), "In Somersetshire . . . they do share theyr wheate very
lowe. . . ."
If the stalk of corn were short (I answered), I should cut down close,
to secure a sufficient length of straw to be of use. But if the stalk
be tall, you would do right, I hold, to cut it half-way down, whereby
the thresher and the winnower will be saved some extra labour (which
both may well be spared).[4] The stalk left standing in the field,
when burnt down (as burnt it will be, I presume), will help to benefit
the soil;[5] and laid on as manure, will serve to swell the volume of
manure.[6]
[4] Lit. "will be spared superfluous labour on what they do not want."
[5] Al. "if burnt down . . .; if laid on as manure . . ."
[6] "Help to swell the bulk" (Holden). For the custom see Virg.
"Georg." i. 84; J. Tull, op. cit. ix. 141: "The custom of burning
the stubble on the rich plains about Rome continues to this time."
Isch. There, Socrates, you are detected "in the very act"; you know as
much about reaping as I do myself.
It looks a little like it (I replied). But I would fain discover
whether I have sound knowledge also about threshing.
Isch. Well, I suppose you are aware of this much: corn is threshed by
beasts of burthen?[7]
[7] Holden cf. Dr. Davy, "Notes and Observations on the Ionian
Islands." "The grain is beaten out, commonly in the harvest field,
by men, horses, or mules, on a threshing-floor prepared extempore
for the purpose, where the ground is firm and dry, and the chaff
is separated by winnowing."--Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," ii.
41 foll.
Soc. Yes, I am aware of that much, and beast of burthen is a general
name including oxen, horses, mules, and so forth.[8]
[8] See Varro, i. 52, as to tritura and ventilatio.
Isch. Is it your opinion that these animals know more than merely how
to tread the corn while driven with the goad?
Soc. What more can they know, being beasts of burthen?
Isch. Some one must see, then, that the beasts tread out only what
requires threshing and no more, and that the threshing is done evenly
itself: to whom do you assign that duty, Socrates?
Soc. Clearly it is the duty of the threshers who are in charge.[9] It
is theirs to turn the sheaves, and ever and again to push the
untrodden corn under the creatures' feet; and thus, of course, to keep
the threshing-floor as smooth, and finish off the work as fast, as
possible.
[9] Or, "to the over-threshers," "the drivers" (Holden).
Isch. Your comprehension of the facts thus far, it seems, keeps pace
with mine.
Soc. Well, after that, Ischomachus, we will proceed to cleanse the
corn by winnowing.[10]
[10] Breit. cf. Colum. "de r. r." ii. 10, 14, 21; vide Rich, s.v.
ventilabrum.
Isch. Yes, but tell me, Socrates; do you know that if you begin the
process from the windward portion (of the threshing-floor), you will
find your chaff is carried over the whole area.
Soc. It must be so.
Isch. Then it is more than likely the chaff will fall upon the corn.
Soc. Yes, considering the distance,[11] the chaff will hardly be
carried across the corn into the empty portion of the threshing-floor.
[11] Lit. "it is a long space for the chaff to be carried." Al. (1)
"It is of great consequence the chaff should be carried beyond the
corn." (2) "It often happens that the corn is blown not only on to
the corn, but over and beyond it into the empty portion of the
threshing-floor." So Breit.
Isch. But now, suppose you begin winnowing on the "lee" side of the
threshing-floor?[12]
[12] Or, "on the side of the threshing-floor opposite the wind." Al.
"protected from the wind."
Soc. It is clear the chaff will at once fall into the chaff-
receiver.[13]
[13] A hollowed-out portion of the threshing-floor, according to
Breitenbach.
Isch. And when you have cleansed the corn over half the floor, will
you proceed at once, with the corn thus strewn in front of you, to
winnow the remainder,[14] or will you first pack the clean grain into
the narrowest space against the central pillar?[15]
[14] Lit. "of the chaff," where we should say "corn," the winnowing
process separating chaff from grain and grain from chaff.
[15] If that is the meaning of {ton polon}. Al. "the outer edge or rim
of the threshing-floor."
Soc. Yes, upon my word! first pack together the clean grain, and
proceed. My chaff will now be carried into the empty portion of the
floor, and I shall escape the need of winnowing twice over.[16]
[16] Or, "the same chaff (i.e. unwinnowed corn, Angl. corn) twice."
Isch. Really, Socrates, you are fully competent yourself, it seems, to
teach an ignorant world[17] the speediest mode of winnowing.
[17] Lit. "After all, Socrates, it seems you could even teach another
how to purge his corn most expeditiously."
Soc. It seems, then, as you say, I must have known about these
matters, though unconsciously; and here I stand and beat my
brains,[18] reflecting whether or not I may not know some other things
--how to refine gold and play the flute and paint pictures--without
being conscious of the fact. Certainly, as far as teaching goes, no
one ever taught me these, no more than husbandry; while, as to using
my own eyes, I have watched men working at the other arts no less than
I have watched them till the soil.
[18] Lit. "all this while, I am thinking whether . . ."
Isch. Did I not tell you long ago that of all arts husbandry was the
noblest, the most generous, just because it is the easiest to learn?
Soc. That it is without a doubt, Ischomachus. It seems I must have
known the processes of sowing, without being conscious of my
knowledge.[19]
[19] Or, "but for all my science, I was ignorant (of knowing my own
knowledge)."
XIX
Soc. (continuing). But may I ask, is the planting of trees[1] a
department in the art of husbandry?
[1] i.e. of fruit trees, the vine, olive, fig, etc.
Isch. Certainly it is.
Soc. How is it, then, that I can know about the processes of sowing
and at the same time have no knowledge about planting?
Isch. Is it so certain that you have no knowledge?
Soc. How can you ask me? when I neither know the sort of soil in which
to plant, nor yet the depth of hole[2] the plant requires, nor the
breadth, or length of ground in which it needs to be embedded;[3] nor
lastly, how to lay the plant in earth, with any hope of fostering its
growth.[4]
[2] Reading {to phuto}, "nor yet how deep or broad to sink (the hole)
for the plant." Holden (ed. 1886) supplies {bothunon}. Al.
{bothron}.
[3] See Loudon, "Encycl. of Agric." S. 407, ap. Holden: "In France
plantations of the vine are made by dibbling in cuttings of two
feet of length; pressing the earth firmly to their lower end, an
essential part of the operation, noticed even by Xenophon."
[4] Lit. "how, laid in the soil, the plant will best shoot forth or
grow."
Isch. Come, then, to lessons, pupil, and be taught whatever you do not
know already! You have seen, I know, the sort of trenches which are
dug for plants?
Soc. Hundreds of times.
Isch. Did you ever see one more than three feet deep?
Soc. No, I do not think I ever saw one more than two and a half feet
deep.
Isch. Well, as to the breadth now. Did you ever see a trench more than
three feet broad?[5]
[5] Or, "width," "wide." The commentators cf. Plin. "H. N." xvii. 11,
16, 22; Columell. v. 5. 2; ib. iii. 15. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 288.
Soc. No, upon my word, not even more than two feet broad.
Isch. Good! now answer me this question: Did you ever see a trench
less than one foot deep?
Soc. No, indeed! nor even less than one foot and a half. Why, the
plants would be no sooner buried than dug out again, if planted so
extremely near the surface.
Isch. Here, then, is one matter, Socrates, which you know as well as
any one.[6] The trench is not to be sunk deeper than two feet and a
half, or shallower than one foot and a half.
[6] Lit. "quite adequately."
Soc. Obviously, a thing so plain appeals to the eye at once.
Isch. Can you by eyesight recognise the difference between a dry soil
and a moist?
Soc. I should certainly select as dry the soil round Lycabettus,[7]
and any that resembles it; and as moist, the soil in the marsh meadows
of Phalerum,[8] or the like.
[7] See Leake, "Topog. of Athens," i. 209.
[8] Or, "the Phaleric marsh-land." See Leake, ib. 231, 427; ii. 9.
Isch. In planting, would you dig (what I may call) deep trenches in a
dry soil or a moist?
Soc. In a dry soil certainly; at any rate, if you set about to dig
deep trenches in the moist you will come to water, and there and then
an end to further planting.
Isch. You could not put it better. We will suppose, then, the trenches
have been dug. Does your eyesight take you further?[9] Have you
noticed at what season in either case[10] the plants must be embedded?
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